Simon Whatley – Service designer, creative technologist and coachMy name is Simon Whatley. I’m a service designer, creative technologist, coach, thinker, tinkerer, observer of people, maker of things.2023-11-05T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.ukSimon Whatleyhello@simonwhatley.co.ukLeader or manager?2007-01-08T21:30:42Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/leader-or-manager/<p>A while ago a colleague of mine asked me the question “Do you consider yourself to be a leader or a manager?” Initially, I responded that I thought myself to be a manager as an essential aspect of my role is managing expectations, ideas and developments of a number of services. However, a debate ensued as my colleague believed me to be more a leader than a manager, and now I am not so sure which one I am!</p>
<p>So what is the distinction between a leader and a manager? Will the definitions help?</p>
<p>A leader is <em>“someone or something that leads or guides others”</em> or <em>“someone who organises or is in charge of a group.”</em> A manager is <em>“someone who manages, especially someone in overall charge or control of a commercial enterprise, organisation, project, etc.”</em></p>
<p>Does this help me? Not yet!</p>
<p>Both a manager and a leader may know the business reasonably well, but the leader must understand the organisation to a finer degree and from a different viewpoint. They must grasp the underlying market forces that determine the past and present trends in the business’ niche so that they can generate a vision and strategy to bring about its future development and growth. A vital sign of a good leader is an honest attitude towards the facts and objective truth. Conversely, a subjective leader obscures the events for the sake of narrow self-interest, partisan interest or prejudice.</p>
<p>Effective leaders continually probe all levels of the organisation for information, challenging their perceptions and validating the facts. They talk to their constituents and employees to find out what is working and what is not. They keep an open mind to the knowledge they gain. An important source of information for a leader are the mistakes that are being made within their organisation.</p>
<p>Leaders conquer the context, the chaotic and ambiguous events that conspire to blur the facts, while managers surrender to the events in a reactionary manner.</p>
<p>Leaders investigate reality, taking the relevant factors and analysing them carefully. On the basis, they produce visions, concepts, plans and programs of change. Managers adopt the truth from others and implement it without regard to the facts.</p>
<p>There is a profound difference between leaders and managers. A good manager does things right while a good leader does the right thing. Doing the right thing implies a goal, a direction, an objective, vision, a dream, a strategy, a path, a reach.</p>
<p>Many people spend their lives engrossed in the ‘rat-race’, attempting to climb the corporate management ladder in a vain effort to beat mediocrity and make a difference. Unfortunately, many find themselves climbing the wrong ladder. Most companies and organisations become over-managed through this constant, unending, highly competitive race and under-led by those who lack vision. The managers accomplish nothing or the wrong things beautifully and efficiently. They climb the wrong ladder.</p>
<p>Managing is as much about efficiency as leadership is about effectiveness. Managing is about how things are done; leadership is about what things need to be done and why these things should be done. Management is about systems, controls, procedures, policies and structures, whereas leadership is about, trust, vision and hum capital, people.</p>
<p>Leadership is about innovating concepts, inspiring others and initiating projects. Management is about carrying out these visions and managing the status quo. Leadership is creative, adaptive and agile. Leadership looks to the future while also being mindful of the bottom line.</p>
<p>Leaders base their vision, appeal and integrity on an accurate estimation of the facts, trends and contradictions. They develop the means to re-define the status-quo so that they can realise their vision, hopefully, successfully, while also enrolling others into their view of the future. Without other people’s buy-in, a vision will stall, and a period of transition will ensue. Leaders, therefore, have to empower others to accomplish the over-arching goal while also rewarding their achievements.</p>
<p>There is a profound difference between management and leadership. To manage means “to bring about or succeed in accomplishing, sometimes despite difficulty or hardship.” To Lead means “to guide in direction, course, action, opinion, etc.” The distinction is important.</p>
<p>The most dramatic differences between leaders and managers are at the extremes. Weak leaders are despots, while poor managers are bureaucrats. Leadership is a human process and management is a resource allocation process. Both are important and in many instances, managers also need to perform as leaders. Indeed first-class managers have significant leadership ability.</p>
<p>So where does this leave me? My opening gambit included the words “…an important aspect of my role is managing expectations, ideas and developments…” this must naturally lead me to a combination of both a leader and a manager. Indeed, in my new role as a service designer and creative technologist, I have to set directions for developing concepts and services while also planning, organising and promoting the effective action of the task at hand. So I could say I am in a period of transition. In the past few years, I have learnt much from those I consider mentors, whether they were aware or not. I have seen how things are managed and lead, and from these experiences have built upon my skill-set. I can neither categorically say I am a leader or a manager, or say what I would rather be; this is something that can only come with time.</p>
Approximate conversion from points to pixels2007-02-21T10:47:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/approximate-conversion-from-points-to-pixels/<p>Here’s a chart that converts points to pixels (and ems and %) where the base size is 16px. It’s an approximation, which will depend on font, browser and OS, but it’s a good starting point.</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Points</th>
<th>Pixels</th>
<th>Ems</th>
<th>Percent</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>6pt</td>
<td>8px</td>
<td>0.5em</td>
<td>50%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7pt</td>
<td>9px</td>
<td>0.55em</td>
<td>55%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7.5pt</td>
<td>10px</td>
<td>0.625em</td>
<td>62.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>8pt</td>
<td>11px</td>
<td>0.7em</td>
<td>70%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>9pt</td>
<td>12px</td>
<td>0.75em</td>
<td>75%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10pt</td>
<td>13px</td>
<td>0.8em</td>
<td>80%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10.5pt</td>
<td>14px</td>
<td>0.875em</td>
<td>87.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>11pt</td>
<td>15px</td>
<td>0.95em</td>
<td>95%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>12pt</strong></td>
<td><strong>16px</strong></td>
<td><strong>1em</strong></td>
<td><strong>100%</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>13pt</td>
<td>17px</td>
<td>1.05em</td>
<td>105%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>13.5pt</td>
<td>18px</td>
<td>1.125em</td>
<td>112.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>14pt</td>
<td>19px</td>
<td>1.2em</td>
<td>120%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>14.5pt</td>
<td>20px</td>
<td>1.25em</td>
<td>125%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>15pt</td>
<td>21px</td>
<td>1.3em</td>
<td>130%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>16pt</td>
<td>22px</td>
<td>1.4em</td>
<td>140%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>17pt</td>
<td>23px</td>
<td>1.45em</td>
<td>145%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>18pt</td>
<td>24px</td>
<td>1.5em</td>
<td>150%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>20pt</td>
<td>26px</td>
<td>1.6em</td>
<td>160%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>22pt</td>
<td>29px</td>
<td>1.8em</td>
<td>180%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>24pt</td>
<td>32px</td>
<td>2em</td>
<td>200%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>26pt</td>
<td>35px</td>
<td>2.2em</td>
<td>220%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>27pt</td>
<td>36px</td>
<td>2.25em</td>
<td>225%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>28pt</td>
<td>37px</td>
<td>2.3em</td>
<td>230%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>29pt</td>
<td>38px</td>
<td>2.35em</td>
<td>235%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>30pt</td>
<td>40px</td>
<td>2.45em</td>
<td>245%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>32pt</td>
<td>42px</td>
<td>2.55em</td>
<td>255%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>34pt</td>
<td>45px</td>
<td>2.75em</td>
<td>275%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>36pt</td>
<td>48px</td>
<td>3em</td>
<td>300%</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Open standards: Break down those walls2008-03-24T09:26:31Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/open-standards-break-down-those-walls/<p>On the Web, a walled garden is an environment that controls the user’s access to Web content and services. In effect, the walled garden directs the user’s navigation within particular areas, to allow access to a selection of material, or prevent access to other material.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="recent-history-suggests-that-open-standards-will-again-better-the-walled-gardens-of-the-web" tabindex="-1">Recent history suggests that open standards will again better the “walled gardens” of the Web<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/open-standards-break-down-those-walls/#recent-history-suggests-that-open-standards-will-again-better-the-walled-gardens-of-the-web"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Recent history suggests that open standards will again better the “walled gardens” of the Web</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In 1994, when the previously obscure computer network, developed by the American Department of Defence, first become known to the general public as the “World Wide Web”, or simply The Web, many people first connected to it via <a href="http://www.aol.com/" title="America Online">AOL</a> and <a href="http://webcenters.netscape.compuserve.com/menu/default.jsp" title="CompuServe">CompuServe</a>. These subscription-based service providers offered not only access to the Internet, but other services such as email, chatrooms, discussion boards and more. It was access to the Web via the Internet that would lead to the undermining of these services, and the opening up of the Web as a platform for individual and creative expression, revenue generation and social interactivity.</p>
<p>Whilst it took some time for the closed communities to venture out into the wilds of the Web, it brought about the standardisation of the services that made up the early web. For instance, POP and SMTP standardised email and as a result it has become the ubiquitous tool of business. Today, of the early pioneers of the Web, only AOL survives, but as an entirely different entity; a web portal supported by advertising.</p>
<p>History appears to be repeating itself. The biggest online phenomena of the past couple of years, the social-networking websites of <a href="http://www.facebook.com/" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> and <a href="http://www.myspace.com/" title="mySpace">MySpace</a>, are acting very much like the AOL of the mid-1990s. They are closed systems based upon prioprietory standards. You cannot easily move information from one system or another if you so choose. This ties users into one system, or forces them to create profiles on both. A similar comparison can be drawn with the virtual worlds of <a href="http://secondlife.com/" title="Second Life">Second Life</a> and <a href="http://www.entropiauniverse.com/" title="Entropia Universe">Entropia Universe</a>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-web-is-better-when-its-social" tabindex="-1">The Web is better when it’s social<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/open-standards-break-down-those-walls/#the-web-is-better-when-its-social"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Web is better when it’s social</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Part of the reason these websites are popular is because they are closed communities, where users can interact with friends and find new friends with which to interact. This community feel has been tested in recent times, with sites such as Facebook being criticised for using their user’s personal data to target advertising. It is inevitable, however, that these systems are proprietary; it is only once these systems immerse and become popular that standards can be developed and implemented.</p>
<p><img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/open-standards-break-down-those-walls/open-social-api.jpg" alt="Open Social API" /></p>
<p>Just as the Web’s open standards, embodied in the Netscape browser, displaced the online services providers, so the paradigm of open standards awaits the social networking and virtual worlds. Back in the 1990s it was Netscape, but in the 21st Century it falls to Google to defend the open standards of the Web with the Open Social API. Some say there is a large amount of self interest in this move, since Facebook and MySpace have huge communities, which both networks know a huge amount more about than Google and can hence generate billions of dollars of revenue.</p>
<p>The web is more interesting when you can build applications that easily interact with your friends and colleagues. But with the trend towards more social applications also comes a growing list of site-specific APIs that developers must learn. <a href="http://code.google.com/apis/opensocial/" title="Open Social API">Open Social</a> is an attempt not only to open up the closed communities and allow developers to interact with the different networks, but allow developers to only learn one API. MySpace has signed up to this initiative and, more reluctantly so has Facebook. A curiosity is AOLs recent aquisition of Bebo, another online community popular in Europe. Is AOL simply jumping on the “band-wagon”? Has it learnt its lessons of the past, or is it using knowledge of its past as a guiding principle? Whatever is the answer, Bebo’s inclusion in Open Social will help it continue its competition with other social networking websites.</p>
<p>On the Web, a walled garden is an environment that controls the user’s access to Web content and services. In effect, the walled garden directs the user’s navigation within particular areas, to allow access to a selection of material, or prevent access to other material.</p>
Online social networks: Everywhere, yet nowhere2008-03-26T09:52:47Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/<p>In the late 1990s, a large multi-national technology corporation, hoping to become a major force in online advertising, bought a small start-up in a sector that was believed to be the next big thing. That corporation was Microsoft and the start-up was Hotmail. Hotmail and Microsoft established web-based email as a must-have application for personal use. The addition of Hotmail to the Microsoft inventory promised to increase the companies online revenues that were being dominated by Yahoo!, Google and AOL amongst a host of others.</p>
<p>A decade later it was the turn of a much-evolved AOL to speculate with the purchase of a small and upcoming social networking website, Bebo, for $850m (£425m). This has raised a number of eyebrows since AOL has been a struggling web-portal after its merger with Time Warner, added to the fact that the real value of social networking has yet to be realised or understood.</p>
<p><img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/social-networking-sites.jpg" alt="Social Networking Websites" /></p>
<p>Both deals in their respective decades offer to the casual observer a paradox of the Internet revolution. Whilst both email and social networking have the premise of being the next big thing which aides revenue generation, it is dangerous to assume that each service can standalone and generate revenue in its own right. Webmail, now over a decade old illustrates this perfectly. Microsoft, Yahoo!, Google and AOL all have their respective webmail services with advertisements stratefically placed to entice the user to click through, but these are a small part of the bigger networks. The offer of email, free archiving, address book and calendar is cheap to deliver, but its primary purpose is to keep the user engaged with the brand and its associated websites, making users more likely to visit the affiliated pages where advertising is more effective.</p>
<p>For instance, I am a fully signed up member of Google and access their email, chat, documents, analytics, webmasters, adsense, adwords, calendar and checkout applications, etc, some of which have advertising and all of which support the core Google search pages through branding. A similar example can also be said of Yahoo!. I again frequently use Yahoo!s MyBlogLog, Flickr and Upcoming services, which serve to re-inforce the Yahoo! brand and web portal.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="social-networking-will-become-a-ubiquitous-feature-of-online-life-but-that-does-not-mean-it-is-a-business" tabindex="-1">Social networking will become a ubiquitous feature of online life, but that does not mean it is a business<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/#social-networking-will-become-a-ubiquitous-feature-of-online-life-but-that-does-not-mean-it-is-a-business"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Social networking will become a ubiquitous feature of online life, but that does not mean it is a business</span></a></h2></div>
<p>From whence came webmail now comes social networking. The implicit values of social networking services such as MySpace, Facebook and Bebo have been increased by the big internet and media companies such as News Corporation, with their purchase of MySpace for $580m (£290m) in 2005 and Microsoft’s $260m (£130m) investment for a 1.6% share in Facebook, in late 2007 (valuing it at an enormous $15bn/£7.5bn). But valuing these online services so highly does not mean that there is a valuable revenue model; Facebook’s revenue for 2007 was a mere $150m (£75m). Sergey Brin of Google also admitted that the monetisation of their Orkut service and social networking in general was proving to be problematic (they also have a contractual agreement with News Corporation to offer advertising on their MySpace service).</p>
<p>Facebook has also been met with criticism and difficulty when trying to monetise its service with a project called Beacon. Facebook’s idea was to inform users’ networks whenever an item was purchased therefore creating what is in effect a recommendation system, or algorithmic word-of-mouth. Users rebelled and privacy advocates shouted loudly, the service was axed and Mark Zuckerberg, Facebook’s founder, was left to apologise for an innovative idea badly implemented.</p>
<p>Whilst social networking does have oportunities to make money, it is unlikely that it will be pots and pots of money. The value of the service, however, is not monetary, but as its genre suggests, it is social. We have already seen how people can connect to past and present friends, but a social networkings strength is in its ability to forge new relationships, business or personal. Social networking has made explicit the connections between people, which has lead to a whole ecosystem of applications built on their APIs which allow users to interact.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="but-should-users-really-have-to-visit-a-specific-website-to-be-social" tabindex="-1">But should users really have to visit a specific website to be social?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/#but-should-users-really-have-to-visit-a-specific-website-to-be-social"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled But should users really have to visit a specific website to be social?</span></a></h2></div>
<p>I often comment that there is something profoundly wrong when people are forced to spend their lives updating their profile to keep in touch with their so-called friends. What happened to the good-old-fashioned telephone? Why don’t people simply arrange to meet up and go for a drink to keep in touch? Of course, with everyone’s increasingly busy lives, it is possible to argue that posting a tweet via twitter, posting an article on a blog or updating your Facebook profile, allows you to continue a real relationship with your friends, whilst not actually needing to see them every Friday or Saturday night. This is a good thing, right?</p>
<p>Another problem presented by today’s social networks is that they are an enclosed ecosystem, at least to users. Whilst Facebook and LinkedIn, in addition to a whole host of others, have provided APIs for developers to encourage them to interact with their services (this has been particularly successful with Facebook) the same cannot be applied to users. The various social networks, until recently, have been reluctant to allow users to pass data between competing services, afterall, this data is core to the success, or indeed failure, of a site. This is understandable since the networks’ huge valuations depend on the sites maximising revenues and page views, so they need to maintain a tight control. As a result, keen Internet users maintain a plethora of online accounts.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2008-will-see-a-change-in-how-people-access-social-networks" tabindex="-1">2008 will see a change in how people access social networks<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/#2008-will-see-a-change-in-how-people-access-social-networks"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2008 will see a change in how people access social networks</span></a></h2></div>
<p><img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/opensocial.jpg" alt="Google Open Social" /></p>
<p>The opening up of social networks, lead by Google with their <a href="http://code.google.com/apis/opensocial/" title="Google Open Social API">Open Social</a> API, is set to bring about an evolution in this medium. This change is following the historical standardisation of popular services. First it was email with webmail, which in the early days was restricted to individual ecosystems, for example AOL and CompuServe, then it was instant messaging, with individual services provided by Microsoft, Yahoo!, Google, AOL and Skype.</p>
<p>Further developments include the <a href="http://www.dataportability.org/" title="Data Portability Working Group">Data Portability Working Group</a>, whose mission is to put all existing technologies and initiatives in context to create a reference design for end-to-end data portability. In short, allow users to move their data around competing services. Others are pushing <a href="http://openid.net/" title="Open ID">OpenID</a>; a plan to create a single, federated online sign-on system that people can use to access many websites.</p>
<p><img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/online-social-networks-everywhere-yet-nowhere/dataportability.png" alt="Data Portability" /></p>
<p>The opening of social networks is likely to accelerate thanks to the first tentative, yet bold, steps made by webmail; the first social network. As a technology, webmail has become old fashioned, but its younger sybling, the social network will revitalise not only webmail, but online communication and advertising. Through social intelligence, marketers and advertisers will be able to target adverts for items that we are more likely to want. This will not only boost the users online experience, but provide a more targeted revenue stream.</p>
<p>The fight for social networking dominance has been running for several years now, but it shows no sign of letting up.</p>
My work philosophy2009-03-05T15:29:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/my-work-philosophy/<p>Okay, so many of the points below aren’t purely my philosophy, but ideas and principles I have picked up along the way throughout my career. Some relate to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy" title="Wikipedia: UNIX Philosophy">UNIX philosophy</a>, or even the <a href="http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/" title="Zen of Python">Zen of Python</a>, but wherever they’re from, they can be applied to many other domains.</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Don’t reinvent the wheel unless you really have to</strong>. Borrow code and ideas from elsewhere whenever it makes sense. The web community it great at sharing, just look at the various JavaScript libraries, the huge quantities of APIs or indeed the major players’ developer areas: <a href="http://code.google.com/" title="Google Code">Google Code</a>, <a href="http://developer.yahoo.com/" title="Yahoo! Developer Network">Yahoo! Developer Network</a>, <a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/" title="Mozilla Developer Center">Mozilla Developer Center</a>, <a href="http://www.adobe.com/devnet/" title="Adobe Developer Connection">Adobe Developer Connection</a> and <a href="http://dev.opera.com/" title="Dev Opera">Dev Opera</a> to name five I regularly refer to.</li>
<li><strong>Things should be as simple as possible, but no simpler</strong> (Einstein). This idea is really born out of and emphasised by <a href="http://gettingreal.37signals.com/" title="37Signals' Getting Real">37Signals’ Getting Real book</a>. Commonly, 90% of people using an application only use 10% of it’s functionality. The key therefore is to find what people use most often and only build that functionality. If there is a requirement to add more, then sobeit. This can also apply to the code-level, the essence here being a balance between over- and under-engineering something.</li>
<li><strong>Do one thing well</strong> (The UNIX philosophy). It is better to do one thing well, than several second-rate. This could be at the code level — think encapsulation, coupling and cohesion — or indeed at the application level — you’re never going to beat Microsoft Word, but Google and Zoho have developed compelling alternatives, but with far less features.</li>
<li><strong>Don’t fret too much about performance</strong> — understand how to write efficient code and plan to optimise later if or when needed.</li>
<li><strong>Don’t try for perfection</strong> because good enough is often just that. This of course is a matter for conjecture. If I were working on a personal project, I may be more stringent on perfection than say, for a client’s application. This doesn’t mean to say the client’s application would be any worse, but rather it is a question of dotting-the-is and crossing-the-ts. It also depends on your perspective and what gains can be made by aiming for perfection.</li>
<li>(Hence) <strong>it’s okay to cut corners sometimes</strong>, only if you can do it right later. I rarely adhere to this! It makes sense to do it right the first time, since bodge-jobs often come back to haunt you and result in double the effort!</li>
<li><strong>Don’t fight it; go with the flow</strong>. This is somewhat clichéd, but the essence behind this is try to avoid getting stressed out. This isn’t always easy to achieve, but taking a step back from a situation and avoiding politics is important.</li>
</ul>
<p>I often strive for perfection, which isn’t an entirely clever pursuit since it is almost impossible to achieve. However, in a realm of imperfection, the principles above have helped me to achieve a modicum of decent code throughout the years. They may also resonate and provide inspiration for you.</p>
Google’s Philosophy – Ten Things2009-04-24T12:03:47Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/googles-philosophy-ten-things/<p>One of Google’s mantras is to never settle for the best. The perfect search engine, says Google co-founder Larry Page, would understand exactly what you mean and give back exactly what you want. Given the state of search technology today, that’s a far-reaching vision requiring research, development and innovation to realise. Google is committed to blazing that trail. Though acknowledged as the world’s leading search technology company, Google’s goal is to provide a much higher level of service to all those who seek information, whether they’re at a desk in Boston, driving through Bonn, or strolling in Bangkok.</p>
<p>To that end, Google has persistently pursued innovation and pushed the limits of existing technology to provide a fast, accurate and easy-to-use search service that can be accessed from anywhere. To fully understand Google, it’s helpful to understand all the ways in which the company has helped to redefine how individuals, businesses and technologists view the Internet.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="ten-things-google-has-found-to-be-true" tabindex="-1">Ten things Google has found to be true<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/googles-philosophy-ten-things/#ten-things-google-has-found-to-be-true"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Ten things Google has found to be true</span></a></h2></div>
<ol>
<li>Focus on the user and all else will follow.</li>
<li>It’s best to do one thing really, really well.</li>
<li>Fast is better than slow.</li>
<li>Democracy on the web works.</li>
<li>You don’t need to be at your desk to need an answer.</li>
<li>You can make money without doing evil.</li>
<li>There’s always more information out there.</li>
<li>The need for information crosses all borders.</li>
<li>You can be serious without a suit.</li>
<li>Great just isn’t good enough.</li>
</ol>
<p>The full article can be found on <a href="http://www.google.com/corporate/tenthings.html" title="Google’s Ten Things">Google’s corporate website</a>.</p>
IDEO’s Human-Centred Design Toolkit2009-11-20T12:01:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/<p>Human-Centred Design (HCD) is a process used for decades to create new solutions for companies and organisations. HCD can help you enhance the lives of people. This process has been specially-adapted for organisations like that work with people in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. HCD will help you hear people’s needs in new ways, create innovative solutions to meet these needs, and deliver solutions with financial sustainability in mind.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.ideo.com/post/design-kit" title="IDEO's Human-Centred Design Toolkit">IDEO’s Human-Centred Design Toolkit</a> is a free innovation guide for NGOs and social enterprises.</p>
<p>The toolkit is divided into four sections:</p>
<ol>
<li>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_Intro.pdf" title="Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Introduction (PDF 408KB)">Introduction</a> will give an overview of HCD and help you understand how it might be used alongside other methods.</li>
<li>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_Hear_Guide.pdf" title="Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Hear Guide (PDF 28MB)">Hear guide</a> will help your design team prepare for fieldwork and understand how to collect stories that will serve as insight and inspiration. Designing meaningful and innovative solutions that serve your customers begins with gaining deep empathy for their needs, hopes and aspirations for the future. The Hear booklet will equip the team with methodologies and tips for engaging people in their own contexts to delve beneath the surface.</li>
<li>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_Field_Guide.pdf" title="Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Field Guide (PDF 2.7MB)">Field Guide</a> and <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_Aspirations_Cards.pdf" title="Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Aspirations Cards (PDF 6.3MB)">Aspirations Cards</a> are a complement to the Hear guide; these are the tools your team will take with them in order to conduct research.</li>
<li>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_Create_Guide.pdf" title="Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Create Guide (PDF 18.6MB)">Create guide</a> will help your team work together in a workshop format to translate what you heard from people into frameworks, opportunities, solutions, and prototypes. During this phase, you will move from concrete to more abstract thinking in identifying themes and opportunities and back to the concrete with solutions and prototypes.</li>
<li>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_Deliver_Guide.pdf" title="Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Deliver Guide (PDF 4.4MB)">Deliver guide</a> will help catapult the top ideas you have created toward implementation. The realisation of solution includes rapid revenue and cost modelling, capability assessment, and implementation panning. The activities offered in this phase are meant to complement your organisation’s existing implementation processes and may prompt adaptations to the way solutions are typically rolled out.</li>
</ol>
<p><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/ideo-human-centered-design-toolkit/IDEO_HCD_ToolKit.pdf" title="IDEO's Human-Centred Design Toolkit - Complete (PDF 32MB)">Download the complete toolkit</a> (PDF, 32MB)</p>
Jakob Nielsen’s 10 Usability Heuristics2009-12-02T10:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/<p>These are ten general principles for user interface design suggested by <a href="http://www.useit.com/" title="Jakob Nielsen">Jakob Nielsen</a>. They are called heuristics because they are more in the nature of rules of thumb than specific usability guidelines.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-visibility-of-system-status" tabindex="-1">1. Visibility of system status<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#1-visibility-of-system-status"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Visibility of system status</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The system should always keep users informed about what is going on, through appropriate feedback within reasonable time.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/visibility-system-status/">Read the full article</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-match-between-system-and-the-real-world" tabindex="-1">2. Match between system and the real world<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#2-match-between-system-and-the-real-world"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Match between system and the real world</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The system should speak the users’ language, with words, phrases and concepts familiar to the user, rather than system-oriented terms. Follow real-world conventions, making information appear in a natural and logical order.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/match-system-real-world/">Read the full article</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-user-control-and-freedom" tabindex="-1">3. User control and freedom<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#3-user-control-and-freedom"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. User control and freedom</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Users often choose system functions by mistake and will need a clearly marked emergency exit to leave the unwanted state without having to go through an extended dialogue. Support undo and redo.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-consistency-and-standards" tabindex="-1">4. Consistency and standards<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#4-consistency-and-standards"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Consistency and standards</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Users should not have to wonder whether different words, situations, or actions mean the same thing. Follow <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/do-interface-standards-stifle-design-creativity/">platform conventions</a>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-error-prevention" tabindex="-1">5. Error prevention<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#5-error-prevention"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Error prevention</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Even better than good error messages is a careful design which prevents a problem from occurring in the first place. Either eliminate error-prone conditions or check for them and present users with a confirmation option before they commit to the action.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/slips/">Read the full article</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="6-recognition-rather-than-recall" tabindex="-1">6. Recognition rather than recall<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#6-recognition-rather-than-recall"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Recognition rather than recall</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Minimise the user’s memory load by making objects, actions, and options visible. The user should not have to remember information from one part of the dialogue to another. Instructions for use of the system should be visible or easily retrievable whenever appropriate.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/recognition-and-recall/">Read the full article</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="7-flexibility-and-efficiency-of-use" tabindex="-1">7. Flexibility and efficiency of use<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#7-flexibility-and-efficiency-of-use"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 7. Flexibility and efficiency of use</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Accelerators — unseen by the novice user — may often speed up the interaction for the expert user such that the system can cater to both inexperienced and experienced users. Allow users to tailor frequent actions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="8-aesthetic-and-minimalist-design" tabindex="-1">8. Aesthetic and minimalist design<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#8-aesthetic-and-minimalist-design"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 8. Aesthetic and minimalist design</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Dialogues should not contain information which is irrelevant or rarely needed. Every extra unit of information in a dialogue competes with the relevant units of information and diminishes their relative visibility.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="9-help-users-recognise-diagnose-and-recover-from-errors" tabindex="-1">9. Help users recognise, diagnose, and recover from errors<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#9-help-users-recognise-diagnose-and-recover-from-errors"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 9. Help users recognise, diagnose, and recover from errors</span></a></h2></div>
<p><a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/error-message-guidelines/">Error messages</a> should be expressed in plain language (no codes), precisely indicate the problem, and constructively suggest a solution.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="10-help-and-documentation" tabindex="-1">10. Help and documentation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#10-help-and-documentation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 10. Help and documentation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Even though it is better if the system can be used without documentation, it may be necessary to provide help and documentation. Any such information should be easy to search, focused on the user’s task, list concrete steps to be carried out, and not be too large.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references" tabindex="-1">References<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/jakob-nielsen-ten-usability-heuristics/#references"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.useit.com/papers/heuristic/heuristic_list.html" title="Jakob Nielsen's Heuristic List">http://www.useit.com/papers/heuristic/heuristic_list.html</a></li>
<li>Nielsen, J. (1994b). Heuristic evaluation. In Nielsen, J., and Mack, R.L. (Eds.), Usability Inspection Methods, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.</li>
</ul>
Dieter Rams’ 10 Rules of Good Design2010-01-06T10:28:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/dieter-rams-10-rules-of-good-design/<p>Dieter Rams is a German industrial designer closely associated with the consumer products company Braun and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Wikipedia: Functionalism">Functionalist</a> school of industrial design. Many of Rams’ designs—coffee makers, calculators, radios, audio/visual equipment, consumer appliances and office products—have found a permanent home at many museums over the world, including MoMA in New York.</p>
<p>How does Rams’ define good design?</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Good design should be innovative</strong> – It does not copy existing product forms, nor does it produce any kind of novelty just for the sake of it. The essence of innovation must clearly be seen in all of a product’s functions. Current technological development keeps offering new chances for innovative solutions.</li>
<li><strong>Good design should make a product useful</strong> – The product is bought in order to be used. It must serve a defined purpose, in both primary and additional functions. The most important task of design is to optimise the utility of a product’s usability.</li>
<li><strong>Good design is aesthetic design</strong> – The aesthetic quality of a product is integral to its usefulness because products we use every day affect our well-being. But only well-executed objects can be beautiful.</li>
<li><strong>Good design will make a product understandable</strong> – It clarifies the product’s structure. Better still, it can make the product talk. At best, it is self-explanatory.</li>
<li><strong>Good design is honest</strong> – It does not make a product more innovative, powerful or valuable than it really is. It does not attempt to manipulate the consumer with promises that cannot be kept.</li>
<li><strong>Good design is unobtrusive</strong> – Products fulfilling a purpose are like tools. They are neither decorative objects nor works of art. Their design should therefore be both neutral and restrained, to leave room for the user’s self-expression.</li>
<li><strong>Good design is long lived</strong> – It does not follow trends that become out-dated after a short time. Well designed products differ significantly from short-lived, trivial products in today’s throwaway world.</li>
<li><strong>Good design is consistent in every detail</strong> – Nothing must be arbitrary. Thoroughness and accuracy in the design process shows respect towards the user.</li>
<li><strong>Good design should be environmentally friendly</strong> – Design must make contributions towards a stable environment and sensible raw material situation. This does not only include actual pollution, but also visual pollution and destruction of our environment.</li>
<li><strong>Good design is as little design as possible</strong> – Less is more – because it concentrates on the essential aspects and the products are not burdened with non-essentials. Back to purity, back to simplicity.</li>
</ol>
<p>Many people say it is obvious that Rams’ designs have been influential on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Ive" title="Wikipedia: Jonathan Ive">Jonathan Ive</a> of Apple, designer of such products as the iMac, iPod, and iPhone, as can be witnessed particularly in the iPhone’s calculator application, whose design is based on the Braun ET66 calculator designed by Rams.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="more" tabindex="-1">More<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/dieter-rams-10-rules-of-good-design/#more"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled More</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Design Museum in London are holding a <a href="http://designmuseum.org/exhibitions/2009/2009-dieter-rams" title="The Design Museum - Dieter Rams' exhibition">Dieter Rams’ exhibition</a> between 19th November 2009 and 9th March 2010. The exhibition will showcase Rams’ landmark designs for Braun and furniture manufacturer Vitsœ, examine how Rams’ design ethos inspired Braun’s entire product range for over 40 years, and assess his lasting influence on today’s design landscape.</p>
Google’s 5 privacy principles2010-01-28T14:51:50Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/google-5-privacy-principles/<p>In honour of <a href="http://dataprivacyday2010.org/" title="International Data Privacy Day">International Data Privacy Day</a> today, 28th January 2010, Google has published their own <a href="http://www.google.com/corporate/privacy_principles.html" title="Google's Privacy Principles">guidelines on privacy</a>.</p>
<p>The timing of this is quite intriguing following the recent hacking attack, supposedly orchestrated by the Chinese authorities, on Google, Yahoo, Adobe and some 20 other major international corporations; whilst there is also the ongoing concern from many quarters about Google is too dominant in many aspects of our online lives.</p>
<p>But less of the cynicism, the five principles are:</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Use information to provide our users with valuable products and services.</strong><br />
Focus on providing the best user experience is the first tenet of Google’s philosophy. When users share information with us, it allows us to build services and products that are valuable to them. We believe that focusing on the user fosters both the products and privacy-enhancing features that have fuelled innovation and built a loyal audience of users online.</li>
<li><strong>Develop products that reflect strong privacy standards and practices.</strong><br />
Our ambition is to be at the leading edge of technology, including the development of tools that help users manage their personal information in a simple, accessible manner without detracting from a valuable user experience. We comply with privacy laws, and additionally work internally and with regulators and industry partners to develop and implement strong privacy standards.</li>
<li><strong>Make the collection of personal information transparent.</strong><br />
We strive to show users the information used to customise our services. Where appropriate, we aim to be transparent about the information we have about individual users and how we use that information to deliver our services.</li>
<li><strong>Give users meaningful choices to protect their privacy.</strong><br />
People have different privacy concerns and needs. To best serve the full range of our users, Google strives to offer them meaningful and fine-grained choices over the use of their personal information. We believe personal information should not be held hostage and we are committed to building products that let users export their personal information to other services. We don’t sell users’ personal information.</li>
<li><strong>Be a responsible steward of the information we hold.</strong><br />
We recognise our responsibility to protect the data that users entrust to us. We take security issues seriously and work together with a large community of users, developers and external security experts to make the Internet safer and more secure.</li>
</ol>
<p>Whether these principles can be fully adhered to by Google is an important question. But they do serve to calm the fears of many about what they’ll do with our data. If nothing else, they do serve to highlight the need for data privacy to be taken seriously by anyone considering building web applications.</p>
<p>If you’re interested in more of Google’s privacy stances, they’ve got an entire <a href="http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacy.html" title="Google's Privacy Centre">portal</a> dedicated to them.</p>
An Introduction to the Semantic Web2010-06-18T13:20:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/<p>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Web" title="Wikipedia: Semantic Web">Semantic Web</a> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_Data" title="Wikipedia: Linked Data">web of data</a>. There is lots of data we all use every day, and most of it is not part of the web. I can see my bank statements on the web, and my photographs, and I can see my appointments in a calendar. But can I see my photos in a calendar to see what I was doing when I took them and on a map so I know where I took them? Can I see bank statement lines in a calendar? The answer, right now, is no.</p>
<p>But why not? Because we don’t have a web of data. Because data is controlled by applications, and each application keeps its data to itself; applications don’t like to share.</p>
<p>The original Web mainly concentrated on the interchange of documents, however, the Semantic Web is about two things: It is about common formats for integration and combination of data drawn from diverse sources. It is also about language for recording how the data relates to real world objects. That allows a person, or a machine, to start off in one database, and then move through an unending set of databases which are connected not by wires but by being about the same thing.</p>
<p>Tim Berners-Lee describes the Semantic Web vision as:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analysing all the data on the Web, the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A Semantic Web, which should make this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The intelligent agents people have touted for ages will finally materialise.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>What are the ideas and technologies that facilitate this vision? Below I give an overview and links to a number of them:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="linked-data" tabindex="-1">Linked Data<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#linked-data"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Linked Data</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Linked Data is about using the Web to connect related data that wasn’t previously linked, or using the Web to lower the barriers to linking data currently linked using other methods. More specifically, Wikipedia defines Linked Data as “a term used to describe a recommended best practice for exposing, sharing, and connecting pieces of data, information, and knowledge on the Semantic Web using URIs and RDF.”</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://linkeddata.org/" title="Linked Data: Connect Distributed Data Across The Web">http://linkeddata.org</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_Data" title="Wikipedia: Linked Data">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linked_Data</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="resource-description-framework" tabindex="-1">Resource Description Framework<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#resource-description-framework"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Resource Description Framework</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Resource Description Framework (RDF) is a general-purpose language for representing information in the Web.</p>
<p>The <strong>Resource Description Framework Schema (RDF-S)</strong> is a semantic extension of RDF that provides mechanisms for describing groups of related resources and the relationships between these resources.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-schema/" title="World Wide Web Consortium: RDF Schema">http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-schema/</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDF_Schema" title="Wikipedia: RDF Schema">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDF_Schema</a></li>
</ul>
<p>The <strong>Resource Description Framework in Attributes (RDFa)</strong> allows authors to add meaning to web page elements. Using a few simple XHTML attributes, authors can mark up human-readable data with machine-readable indicators for browsers and other programs to interpret. A web page can include markup for items as simple as the title of an article, or as complex as a user’s complete social network.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-rdfa-primer/" title="World Wide Web Consortium: XHTML RDFa Primer">http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-rdfa-primer/</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDFa" title="Wikipedia: RDFa">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDFa</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="friend-of-a-friend-foaf" tabindex="-1">Friend of a Friend (FOAF)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#friend-of-a-friend-foaf"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Friend of a Friend (FOAF)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The <em>Friend of a Friend</em> project is creating a Web of machine-readable pages describing people, the links between them and the things they create and do. FOAF is about your place in the Web, and the Web’s place in our world. FOAF is a simple technology that makes it easier to share and use information about people and their activities (eg. photos, calendars, weblogs), to transfer information between Web sites, and to automatically extend, merge and re-use it online.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.foaf-project.org/" title="FOAF Project">http://www.foaf-project.org</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOAF_(software)" title="Wikipedia: FOAF (Software)">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOAF_(software)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friend_of_a_friend" title="Wikipedia: Friend of a Friend">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friend_of_a_friend</a></li>
<li><a href="http://xmlns.com/foaf/spec/" title="FOAF Vocabulary Specification">http://xmlns.com/foaf/spec/</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="web-ontology-language-owl" tabindex="-1">Web Ontology Language (OWL)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#web-ontology-language-owl"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Web Ontology Language (OWL)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The OWL Web Ontology Language is designed for use by applications that need to process the content of information instead of just presenting information to humans. OWL facilitates greater machine interpretability of Web content than that supported by XML, RDF, and RDF Schema (RDF-S) by providing additional vocabulary along with a formal semantics.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/" title="World Wide Web Consortium: OWL Web Ontology Language">http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language" title="Wikipedia: Web Ontology Language">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="dublin-core-metadata-initiative-dcmi" tabindex="-1">Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#dublin-core-metadata-initiative-dcmi"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Dublin Core set of metadata elements provides a small and fundamental group of text elements through which most resources can be described and catalogued. Using only 15 base text fields, a Dublin Core metadata record can describe physical resources such as books, digital materials such as video, sound, image, or text files, and composite media like web pages. Metadata records based on Dublin Core are intended to be used for cross-domain information resource description and have become standard in the fields of library science and computer science. Implementations of Dublin Core typically make use of XML and are Resource Description Framework (RDF) based.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://dublincore.org/" title="Dublin Core Metadata Initiative">http://dublincore.org</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_core" title="Wikipedia: Dublin Core">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_core</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="triplestore" tabindex="-1">Triplestore<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#triplestore"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Triplestore</span></a></h2></div>
<p>A triplestore is a purpose-built database for the storage and retrieval of Resource Description Framework (RDF) metadata.</p>
<p>Much like a relational database, information is stored in a triplestore and retrieved via a query language called SPARQL. Unlike a relational database, a triplestore is optimised for the storage and retrieval of many short statements called triples, in the form of subject-predicate-object, like “Bob is 35” or “Bob knows Fred”.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplestore" title="Wikipedia: Triplestore">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplestore</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="sparql-protocol-and-rdf-query-language-sparql" tabindex="-1">SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#sparql-protocol-and-rdf-query-language-sparql"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>SPARQL is an RDF query language, which can be used to express queries across diverse data sources, whether the data is stored natively as RDF or viewed as RDF via middleware. SPARQL contains capabilities for querying required and optional graph patterns along with their conjunctions and disjunctions. SPARQL also supports extensible value testing and constraining queries by source RDF graph. The results of SPARQL queries can be results sets or RDF graphs.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-sparql-query/" title="World Wide Web Consortium: SPARQL Query">http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-sparql-query/</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparql" title="Wikipedia: SPARQL">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparql</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="simple-knowledge-organization-system-skos" tabindex="-1">Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#simple-knowledge-organization-system-skos"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>SKOS is a family of formal languages designed for representation of thesauri, classification schemes, taxonomies, subject-heading systems, or any other type of structured controlled vocabulary. SKOS is built upon RDF and RDF-S, and its main objective is to enable easy publication of controlled structured vocabularies for the Semantic Web.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/" title="World Wide Web Consortium: SKOS">http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System" title="Wikipedia: Simple Knowledge Organisation System">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="persistent-uniform-resource-locator-purl" tabindex="-1">Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#persistent-uniform-resource-locator-purl"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>A PURL is a type of Uniform Resource Locator (URL) that does not directly describe the location of the resource to be retrieved but instead describes an intermediate, more persistent location which, when retrieved, results in redirection (e.g. via a 302 HTTP status code) to the current location of the final resource.</p>
<p>PURLs are an interim measure, while Uniform Resource Names (URNs) are being mainstreamed, to solve the problem of transitory URIs in location-based URI schemes like HTTP.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://purl.org/docs/index.html" title="Persistent Uniform Resource Locators">http://purl.org/docs/index.html</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Uniform_Resource_Locator" title="Wikipedia: Persistent Uniform Resource Locator">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Uniform_Resource_Locator</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="opencalais" tabindex="-1">OpenCalais<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/an-introduction-to-the-semantic-web/#opencalais"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled OpenCalais</span></a></h2></div>
<p>OpenCalais is a rapidly growing toolkit of capabilities that allow you to readily incorporate state-of-the-art semantic functionality within your blog, content management system, website or application.</p>
<p>The OpenCalais Web Service automatically creates rich semantic metadata for the content you submit. Using Natural Language Processing (NLP), machine learning and other methods, Calais analyses your document and finds the entities within it. Calais goes beyond classic entity identification returning the facts and events hidden within your text as well.</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.opencalais.com/" title="Thomson Reuters OpenCalais">http://www.opencalais.com</a></li>
</ul>
<p>If you have any more suggestions that should be included above, I’ll be happy to hear them.</p>
The Human Action Cycle by Don Norman2010-10-20T21:37:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/<!-- markdownlint-disable MD029 MD036 -->
<p>The human action cycle, also known as the Seven Stages of Action, is a psychological model which describes the steps humans take when they interact with computer systems. The model can be used to help evaluate the efficiency of a user interface (UI). Understanding the cycle requires understanding the user interface design principles of affordance, feedback, visibility and tolerance.</p>
<ul>
<li>An <strong>affordance</strong> is a quality of an object, or an environment, that allows an individual to act.</li>
<li><strong>Feedback</strong> describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same event/phenomenon (or the continuation/development of the original phenomenon) in the present or future. When an event is part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop, then the event is said to “feedback” into itself.</li>
<li>The design should make all needed options and materials for a given task <strong>visible</strong> without distracting the user with extraneous or redundant information. Good designs don’t overwhelm users with alternatives or confuse with unneeded information.</li>
<li>The design should be flexible and <strong>tolerant</strong>, reducing the cost of mistakes and misuse by allowing undoing and redoing, while also preventing errors wherever possible by tolerating varied inputs and sequences and by interpreting all reasonable actions reasonable.</li>
</ul>
<p>The human action cycle describes how humans may form goals and then develop a series of steps required to achieve that goal, using the computer system. The user then executes the actions, thus the model includes both cognitive activities and physical activities.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-three-stages-of-the-human-action-cycle" tabindex="-1">The three stages of the human action cycle<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#the-three-stages-of-the-human-action-cycle"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The three stages of the human action cycle</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/human-action-cycle.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/human-action-cycle.png" alt="Don Norman’s Human Action Cycle also known as the Seven Stages of Action" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: Don Norman’s Human Action Cycle also known as the Seven Stages of Action</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The model is divided into three stages of seven steps in total:</p>
<p><strong>Goal formation stage</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>Goal formation.</li>
</ol>
<p><strong>Execution stage</strong></p>
<ol start="2">
<li>Translation of goals into a set of unordered tasks required to achieve goals.</li>
<li>Sequencing the tasks to create an action sequence.</li>
<li>Executing the action sequence.</li>
</ol>
<p><strong>Evaluation stage</strong></p>
<ol start="5">
<li>Perceiving the results after having executed the action sequence.</li>
<li>Interpreting the actual outcomes based on the expected outcomes.</li>
<li>Comparing what happened with what the user wished to happen.</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-action-cycle-explained" tabindex="-1">The action cycle explained<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#the-action-cycle-explained"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The action cycle explained</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<div class="app-video">
<iframe src="https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/SK0XIxsFK6Y?modestbranding=1&autoplay=1" srcdoc="<style>* {margin: 0;overflow: hidden;padding: 0;}html, body {height: 100%;}img, span {bottom: 0;margin: auto;position: absolute;top: 0;width: 100%;}a {display: flex;justify-content: center;}span {background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5);text-align: center;line-height: 1.66;height: 1.5em;width: 1.5em;padding: 0.5rem 0.25rem 0.5rem 0.75rem;font-size: 3em;border-radius: 100%;color: white;text-shadow: 0 0 1px black;}a:hover span {background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75);}</style><a href=https://www.youtube-nocookie.com/embed/SK0XIxsFK6Y?modestbranding=1&autoplay=1><img src=https://img.youtube.com/vi/SK0XIxsFK6Y/maxresdefault.jpg><span>▶</span></a>" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="" title="">
</iframe>
</div>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Video 1: The <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SK0XIxsFK6Y">Action Cycle explained by Don Norman</a></p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="use-in-the-evaluation-of-user-interfaces" tabindex="-1">Use in the evaluation of user interfaces<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#use-in-the-evaluation-of-user-interfaces"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Use in the evaluation of user interfaces</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Typically, an evaluator of the user interface will pose a series of questions for each step. An evaluation of the answer provides useful information about where the user interface may be inadequate or unsuitable. These questions might be:</p>
<p><strong>Step 1 – Forming a goal:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Do the users have sufficient domain and task knowledge and sufficient understanding of their work to form goals?</li>
<li>Does the UI help the users form these goals?</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Step 2 – Translating the goal into a task or a set of tasks:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Do the users have sufficient domain and task knowledge and sufficient understanding of their work to formulate the tasks?</li>
<li>Does the UI help the users formulate these tasks?</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Step 3 – Planning an action sequence:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Do the users have sufficient domain and task knowledge and sufficient understanding of their work to formulate the action sequence?</li>
<li>Does the UI help the users formulate the action sequence?</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Step 4 – Executing the action sequence:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Can typical users easily learn and use the UI?</li>
<li>Do the actions provided by the system match those required by the users?</li>
<li>Are the affordance and visibility of the actions good?</li>
<li>Do the users have an accurate mental model of the system?</li>
<li>Does the system support the development of an accurate mental model?</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Step 5 – Perceiving what happened:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Can the users perceive the system’s state?</li>
<li>Does the UI provide the users with sufficient feedback about the effects of their actions?</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Step 6 – Interpreting the outcome according to the users’ expectations:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Are the users able to make sense of the feedback?</li>
<li>Does the UI provide enough feedback for this interpretation?</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Step 7 – Evaluating what happened against what was intended:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Can the users compare what happened with what they were hoping to achieve?</li>
</ul>
<p>The desired outcome for a well-designed product or service is for the user to complete the action cycle once for a single action. If the user needs to repeat the cycle multiple times for the same action, the result is frustration at best and harm at worst.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-gulfs" tabindex="-1">The Gulfs<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#the-gulfs"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Gulfs</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Two of the many challenges people must overcome to successfully interact with technology are:</p>
<ul>
<li>Evaluation: Understanding the state of the system</li>
<li>Execution: Taking action to accomplish a specific goal</li>
</ul>
<p>These challenges are described as the “gulf of evaluation” and the “gulf of execution” because, without effective design elements to support users, they can become insurmountable barriers between users and their goals.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/gulf-evaluation-execution.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/gulf-evaluation-execution.png" alt="The Gulfs of Evaluation and Execution" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 2: The gulf of evaluation and the gulf of execution describe two major challenges that users must overcome to successfully interact with any device.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-gulf-of-evaluation" tabindex="-1">The Gulf of Evaluation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#the-gulf-of-evaluation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Gulf of Evaluation</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The <em>Gulf of Evaluation</em> occurs when a user has trouble assessing the state of the system. It reflects the amount of effort that the person must exert to interpret the state of the system and to determine how well the expectations and intentions have been met. Simply put, the user is expecting feedback from an action and not receiving (at best) what they expected or (at worst) nothing at all.</p>
<p>Determining whether something is on or off is a classic example of the gulf of evaluation.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-gulf-of-execution" tabindex="-1">The Gulf of Execution<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#the-gulf-of-execution"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Gulf of Execution</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The difference between a user’s intentions and the allowable actions is the <em>Gulf of Execution</em>.</p>
<p>Norman illustrates this gulf with the example of a video cassette recorder (VCR):</p>
<p>Let us imagine that a user would like to record a television show. They see the solution to this problem as simply pressing the ‘Record’ button. However, in reality, to record a show on a VCR, several actions must be taken:</p>
<ol>
<li>Press the record button.</li>
<li>Specify time of recording, usually involving several steps to change the hour and minute settings.</li>
<li>Select channel to record on - either by entering the channel’s number or selecting it with up/down buttons.</li>
<li>Save the recording settings, perhaps by pressing an “OK” or “menu” or “enter” button.</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="evaluation-and-execution-are-interdependent" tabindex="-1">Evaluation and execution are interdependent<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#evaluation-and-execution-are-interdependent"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Evaluation and execution are interdependent</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Successful execution of a task is usually dependent on the correct evaluation of the system.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="bridging-the-gulfs-with-mental-models" tabindex="-1">Bridging the gulfs with mental models<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#bridging-the-gulfs-with-mental-models"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Bridging the gulfs with mental models</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Interpreting the system state requires effort. People try to minimise effort by using mental models they hold about the world around them to understand the system.</p>
<p>A mental model is a representation of how something works. Mental models shape what we think and how we understand the world. They are a representation of the world, the relationships between its various parts and a person’s intuitive perception about their own acts and their consequences.</p>
<p>Mental models can help shape behaviour and set an approach to solving problems (similar to a personal algorithm) and doing tasks.</p>
<p>Designers can leverage mental models by deliberately including design elements that help users build effective mental models.</p>
<p>Read more about the <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/two-ux-gulfs-evaluation-execution/">The Two UX Gulfs: Evaluation and Execution</a> on the Nielsen Norman Group website.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="usage-as-design-aids" tabindex="-1">Usage as design aids<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#usage-as-design-aids"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Usage as design aids</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The seven-stage structure is referenced as design aid to act as a basic checklist for designers’ questions to ensure that the Gulfs of Execution and Evaluation are answered.</p>
<p>The Seven Stages of Action can be broken down into 4 main principles of good design:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Visibility</strong> - By looking, the user can tell the state of the device and the alternatives for action.</li>
<li><strong>A Good Conceptual Model</strong> - The designer provides a good conceptual model for the user, with consistency in the presentation of operations and results and a coherent, consistent system image.</li>
<li><strong>Good mappings</strong> - It is possible to determine the relationships between actions and results, between the controls and their effects, and between the system state and what is visible.</li>
<li><strong>Feedback</strong> - The user receives full and continuous feedback about the results of the actions.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-action-cycle-don-norman/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Hutchins, E., J., Hollan, J., & Norman, D. A. (1986). Direct Manipulation Interfaces. In A. N. Donald & S. W. Draper (Eds.), <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/User-Centered-System-Design-Human-computer/dp/0898598729/">User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction</a> (pp. 339-352). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.</li>
<li>Norman, D. (2013). <a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Design-Everyday-Things-MIT-Press/dp/0262525674/">The Design of Everyday Things</a>. New York, NY: Basic Books.</li>
<li>Whitenton, K. (2018). <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/articles/two-ux-gulfs-evaluation-execution/">The Two UX Gulfs: Evaluation and Execution</a>. Nielsen Norman Group (NN/g).</li>
</ul>
<!-- markdownlint-enable MD029 MD036 -->
Memory for goals – An activation-based model2011-03-15T16:43:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/<!-- markdownlint-disable MD007 MD026 MD029 -->
<p>When people plan, react to emergencies or other interruptions or make mental notes to do things in the future, an important process involved is the cognitive management of goals.</p>
<p>Very often, a goal must be suspended or set aside temporarily and then resumed later. Suspending a goal might be necessary, for example, if it requires sub-goals to be achieved first, as in hierarchical problem solving and means-ends analysis.</p>
<p>Progress on a goal might be blocked by the state of the world, so one may benefit from turning attention to some other task until the environment changes.</p>
<p>One might be interrupted in the middle of a task prompting the formulation of an intention to resume the task later.</p>
<p>The better the system can remember how far it had progressed toward achieving the pending goal, the more accurately and efficiently it can resume the goal.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="goal-activation-model" tabindex="-1">Goal-activation model<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#goal-activation-model"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Goal-activation model</span></a></h2></div>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The <strong>interference level</strong> is a mental “clutter” of residual memory for goals, which is simply an instance of interference generally.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <strong>strengthening constraint</strong> says that the activation of a new goal must be increased to overcome proactive interference. This strengthening process is not instantaneous and therefore predicts a <em>behavioural</em> time lag to encode a new goal. Importantly, this lag is functionally bounded from above, because excessive strengthening raises the interference level by making the goal more likely to capture behaviour in the future, when it is no longer the target.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <strong>priming constraint</strong> says that a suspended (pending) goal can only be retrieved with help from priming from some associated cue, to overcome retroactive interference from intervening goals. The priming constraint has implications for the structure of the task environment, in that the cue to which a goal is associatively linked must be available both when the goal is suspended (in order to create the link) and when the goal is resumed (in order to prime the target).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="a-special-goal-memory-from-simplifying-assumption-to-theoretical-construct" tabindex="-1">A Special Goal Memory: From Simplifying Assumption to Theoretical Construct<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#a-special-goal-memory-from-simplifying-assumption-to-theoretical-construct"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled A Special Goal Memory: From Simplifying Assumption to Theoretical Construct</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Goal directed cognition is often discussed in terms of <em>cognitive structures</em> that happen to mirror the goal-related requirements of the task environment.</p>
<ul>
<li>For example: When a task is hierarchical and requires goal decomposition, the system’s goals are often assumed to reside in a stack, a data structure that provides an appropriate kind of last-in, first-out access. The argument is typically a functional one – because the system can perform hierarchical tasks, it must contain data structures that support the necessary access patterns for goals.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Two distinctions in early cognitive research:</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Control flow</strong> – the sequencing of physical or mental steps – and the mental <strong>storage structures</strong> that support it.</li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>If a task is too complex to perform directly, means-ends analysis is a control structure that can be used to decompose it into sub-goals. If these sub-goals are also too complex to achieve directly, they must be decomposed in turn.</li>
</ul>
<ol start="2">
<li><strong>Task</strong> vs. <strong>cognitive constraints</strong>.</li>
</ol>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Both kinds of constraint must be met by a system performing a task, but the meeting of task constraints is more easily observed – the analyst or observer need only monitor whether the system’s performance is successful.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The influence of cognitive constraints can only be observed indirectly, for example, with additive factors logic. The successful task performance itself proves little about such internal constraints beyond demonstrating the sufficiency of whatever underlying processes are at work.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>The working memory capacity of the system may be less than ideal for solving complex problems and yet the system can manage if it can bring processes to bear that compensate for inadequate (internal) memory.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Early studies of higher-level cognition and intelligence were focused on the flow of behaviour in response to task structure than on human memory and its constraints.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>One structure well suited to hierarchical control and means-ends analysis is <strong>the stack</strong>. In a stack elements are ordered by age, with the newest at the top (the most accessible position) and the oldest at the bottom (the least accessible position).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>In cognitive architectures that incorporate a goal stack, the newest goal is the one that directs behaviour. If this goal must be decomposed, because it is too large to achieve directly, its sub-goals are “pushed” on the stack, effectively suspending the goal and shifting control to one of its sub-goals. When a sub-goal is achieved, it is “popped” and the system returns control to the super-goal. Thus, the goal stack delivers the right goal at the right time during means-ends analysis.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The original analysis of hierarchical plans assumed that all goals relevant to the current activity were also available to direct behaviour.</p>
<ul>
<li>Abstract goals (e.g., being a good citizen) were taken to direct actions (e.g., giving alms to the poor) concurrently with specific goals (e.g., helping a particular person).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Special goal structures become a more explicit assumption with the development of the <strong>ACT</strong> and <strong>Soar cognitive architectures</strong>.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>ACT</strong> – goals were sources of activation without requiring active maintenance and were linked associatively to other goals to which they were related by task constraints. This meant that returning control to a super-goal was a reliable operation since the sub-goal simply pointed to it.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Soar</strong> contains no notion of activation – items are either in working memory (WM) or not – but the goal stack is part of WM and hence its contents are always immediately available.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>The stack predicts a pervasive tendency to select goals in a last-in, first-out (LIFO) order, but goal-selection order is highly idiosyncratic in non-LIFO tasks and the stack is difficult to “patch” in a way that explains systematic forgetting of certain types of goals.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Behaviour that seems to be governed by serial goal selection can sometimes be attributed to perceptual-motor constraints and where a LIFO goal ordering is necessary; it can often be reconstructed from the environment.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Existence of active inhibitory processes:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Intentions are stored in a special state, active inhibition is required to remove them from working memory.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <em>intention superiority</em> effect. The finding is that memory for an action script is better than memory for a “neutral” script with no associated action and also better than an “observe” script where the action is to be observed rather than carried out.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Goal nodes are the only elements of working memory in ACT that do not need rehearsal to sustain activation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The goal stack was a response to the original challenges of cognitivism – it was necessary to first trace complex mental behaviour, for which the stack was eminently useful, before delving into its relationship to lower-level constraints.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-goal-activation-model-constraints-and-predictions" tabindex="-1">The Goal-Activation Model: Constraints and Predictions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-goal-activation-model-constraints-and-predictions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Goal-Activation Model: Constraints and Predictions</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>ACT-R – derives important constraints from asking what cognitive processes are adaptive given the statistical structure of the environment.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-interference-level" tabindex="-1">The interference level<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-interference-level"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The interference level</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>In human memory, old <strong>items decay gradually</strong> rather than instantaneously, forming a mental clutter that can make it difficult for the system to find the correct item.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Informally, the interference level represents mental clutter.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Formally, the interference level is the expected (mean) activation of the most active distractor.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>When the system samples, it will get the most active goal. Whether this is the target or the most active distractor depends on their relative activation values.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>If the target is above the interference level, then it is more likely to be sampled than any distractor.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If the target is below the interference level, then it is less likely to be sampled than some distractor.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>As long as a goal is above the interference level, it directs behaviour.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Activation is subject to noise.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-strengthening-constraint" tabindex="-1">The strengthening constraint<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-strengthening-constraint"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The strengthening constraint</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>A new goal will suffer <strong>proactive interference</strong> from old goals, so to direct behaviour it has to become more active than the interference level.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The more active an item is now, the higher the interference level later when that item is not the target.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The system must strike a balance between making a new goal strong enough to direct behaviour now, but not so strong that it interferes excessively later once it is satisfied.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The functional constraints have behavioural implications in that they help predict the amount of time that the system needs to spend encoding a new goal.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>During strengthening, the system devotes all its cycles to sampling, causing a rapid build up of activation. Then the system turns to other activities, using the goal for direction. Such activities might include formulating another goal, or might involve manipulating the task environment in a goal-directed manner.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Strengthening is serial</strong> – one sampling event occurs at a time.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Activation increases with exposure to a stimulus.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Strengthening time is bounded from below by the time needed to bring the new goal above the interference threshold.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Strengthening is cumulative</strong> – its effect persists throughout the goals lifetime.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Although the system could improve its memory for a particular goal without limit by spending more time on strengthening, life is not so simple that we have a single goal.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Goals often arise every few seconds, so the interference level is a critical limit on how much activation the system can afford to invest in any particular one.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>The strengthening process makes testable predictions through its role in <em>planning</em> – a process of mental stimulation in which the system imagines a sequence of problem states starting with the configuration shown in the task environment.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The strengthening process is what makes the state immediately and reliably available, by making the state more active than its competitors.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Strengthening extends in time, but this time is bounded because the system needs to avoid too much of a good thing.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Planning often incorporates backtracking – returning to an immediate state in the problem space after pursuing other paths.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-priming-constraint" tabindex="-1">The priming constraint<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-priming-constraint"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The priming constraint</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>A suspended goal suffers <strong>retroactive interference</strong> – it will be “buried” or “masked” by its successors in terms of activation – so to direct behaviour it has to be made more active than the interference level.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Activation can be analysed in terms of history and context – the assumption is that the memory system integrates prior experience with current evidence to predict current need for a memory element.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Cues</strong> provide associative activation, or priming, to a target item to which it is associatively linked.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Priming is the only way to overcome the retroactive interference that affects an old goal. “Now what was I doing?” can only be answered by generating the right cue as a reminder.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The priming constraint has an important implication for cue availability.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The system must attend to the cue when trying to resume a target goal.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The cue must be associatively linked to the target goal in the first place.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>In ACT-R, links between cue and target are often formed by co-occurrence – the cue and target have to enter the system’s focal awareness at roughly the same time.</p>
<ul>
<li>The implication is that the goal and its retrieval cue must have been sampled together, before the goal was suspended.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>When the task is such that the solution path cannot be memorised, the task environment must contain means-ends cues if old goals are to be retrievable.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>They will be “obvious” in some sense – obvious enough ideally that it would be difficult for the system not to process them.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Means-ends cues will prime the target but relatively few distractors.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Retrieval cues need not be environmental – they can be drawn from long-term knowledge about the task and thus be part of the problem solver’s internal mental context.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="summary-of-constraints-and-predictions" tabindex="-1">Summary of constraints and predictions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#summary-of-constraints-and-predictions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Summary of constraints and predictions</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>When the cognitive system asks, “What am I doing?” it is in effect sampling memory for a <strong>goal</strong>. The sampling is complicated by the <strong>interference level</strong>, which represents the <strong>activation</strong> of the most active goal that is not the target.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>To direct behaviour, a new goal must be strengthened to overcome the interference level and a suspended goal must be primed by a retrieval cue to overcome the interference level.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The strengthening and priming constraints make predictions both for behaviour and for the structure of the environment.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The strengthening constraint predicts that setting a new goal takes time (evident though the need to plan ahead).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The priming constraint predicts that cues must be available that the system can encode with a goal and use to prime retrieval later.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="memory-for-goals-in-the-tower-of-hanoi" tabindex="-1">Memory for Goals in the Tower of Hanoi<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#memory-for-goals-in-the-tower-of-hanoi"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Memory for Goals in the Tower of Hanoi</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Means-ends analysis is sufficiently important to human behaviour that it might be viewed as the opposable thumb of cognition.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Means-ends analysis allows us to grasp and manipulate complex concepts piecewise when the whole is too difficult to manage.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-strengthening-constraint-implications-for-planning-moves" tabindex="-1">The strengthening constraint: implications for planning moves<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-strengthening-constraint-implications-for-planning-moves"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The strengthening constraint: implications for planning moves</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Strengthening each goal is critical during <em>planning moves</em>.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Each goal is the basis for formulating its sub-goal and although the initial goal on such moves can be formulated directly from perceptual information, its sub-goals are intermediate mental products and have only mental representations. Because a sub-goal resides in the head only, it must be active enough to be a reliable input to the next level of recursion. The cost associated with an insufficiently active sub-goal is that a memory failure breaks the chain of inference and forces the system to start over.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Strengthening goals supports their retrieval later. The encoded goals represent a plan and it pays to be able to retrieve the steps of this plan. Retrieving a plan step requires not only a retrieval cue, but also depends on the strength of other goals primed by that cue.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-priming-constraint-implications-for-cue-selection" tabindex="-1">The priming constraint: implications for cue selection<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-priming-constraint-implications-for-cue-selection"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The priming constraint: implications for cue selection</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The priming constraint says that retrieval cues are necessary to resume an old goal because the old goal is affected by retroactive interference from intervening goals and needs the activation boost.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The prediction for the Towers of Hanoi is that for every goal retrieved, there is a means-ends cue – and object likely to be attended both when the goal is suspended and when it is to be retrieved and that primes that goal but no (or few) others.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="predicting-the-error-data" tabindex="-1">Predicting the error data<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#predicting-the-error-data"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Predicting the error data</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Errors are caused by activation noise, which can make the wrong goal strongest and send the simulation down the wrong path.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The more the simulation relies on memory for goals, the more opportunities it will have to retrieve the wrong goal and stray off the optimal path.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Errors should increase with problem size, as larger problems involve greater reliance on memory.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="general-discussion" tabindex="-1">General Discussion<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#general-discussion"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled General Discussion</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The most active goal in memory is the one that directs behaviour, because that is what the system samples when it seeks guidance from memory.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>During planning, as the system decomposes a large goal into smaller goals that are easier to achieve, the goal being decomposed must be highly active in order to be the reference point for the decomposition process.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Later, during execution, the same goal may have to be activated again once its sub-goals have been achieved. At this point, priming for cues is necessary to overcome retroactive interference from other, newer goals in memory.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Environmental cues are necessary and sufficient for goal reconstruction in dynamic environments.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There’s a strong dependence of skilled or expert behaviour on environmental cues.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Progressive deepening</strong> – as goal states become more complex and cue-selection heuristics less obvious, we would expect problem solvers to plan from the external state more often, as the difficulty of retrieving intermediate states from memory increases.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Progressive deepening is common in conceptual, ill-structured domains.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="inhibition-of-return-to-old-goals" tabindex="-1">Inhibition of return to old goals<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#inhibition-of-return-to-old-goals"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Inhibition of return to old goals</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>Despite the advantage that recency generally confers on memory for items, inhibition of return is found in diverse cognitive behaviours, from task switching, to visual attention, language processing and implicit sequence learning.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="the-intention-superiority-effect" tabindex="-1">The intention superiority effect<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#the-intention-superiority-effect"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The intention superiority effect</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>An intention to perform an action (an <em>action intention</em>) is stored with greater activation in memory than an intention to observe another actor doing the action (an observe intention).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Memory for something is better the more “goal-like” that thing is.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Intention superiority could simply reflect strategic memory processing taking place in the temporal chinks of the procedure.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A second or two of strengthening can have substantial effects on memory-based performance.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="post-completion-error" tabindex="-1">Post-completion error<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#post-completion-error"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Post-completion error</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>This is a memory-based error made whilst “wrapping up” some common procedural activity. Examples include:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Take the copies but forget the originals.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Take the cash, but for get one’s cared in the cash machine.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Drive away from the petrol station, leaving the car’s petrol cap on the roof of the car.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>The forgotten action occurs after the main goal of the activity is accomplished.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Post-completion actions are goals themselves in the sense that one “knows” to carry them out as part of one’s procedural knowledge.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The user’s procedural knowledge includes an associative link from the main goal to the actions necessary to achieve it. This link spreads activation to the actions as long as the main goal itself is active.</p>
<ul>
<li>The main goal of getting petrol primes the action of replacing the car’s petrol cap and thereby keeps the action available as a pending sub-goal – as long as the tank is not yet filled.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>An assumption is that correct performance depends on the task taking up most of the available working memory capacity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Activation moves around among memory elements but the overall quantity is conserved.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Insufficient memory load raises the interference level.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Interference cannot be the only kind of forgetting – interfering elements themselves must decay if memory is to serve its function.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The decay process in the goal-activation model has a cost as well, which is that suspended goals are forgotten gradually, making them harder to resume.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The general implication is that people are able to retrieve suspended goals successfully if and only if there are cues that meet the priming constraint.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="cognitive-effects-of-interruption" tabindex="-1">Cognitive effects of interruption<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#cognitive-effects-of-interruption"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Cognitive effects of interruption</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Interruptions are continual – this creates a situation in which a goal must be suspended before it is completed and then resumed later.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The first even (the phone ringing; an alarm sounding) can be viewed as the <em>alert</em>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The subsequent event can be viewed as the <em>interruption</em> proper.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The time between onset of the alert and onset of the interruption is the <em>interruption lag</em>.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>Efficient resumption depends on associative links between environmental cues and the target goal. Such links must be formed before interruption onset (assuming that the interruption truly draws the system’s attention away from the interrupted task). The interruption lag is a natural window of opportunity to form such links.</p>
<ul>
<li>By analogy, if two people are conversing an the phone rings, the callee faces the strategic decision – whether to use the available time while the phone is ringing to end the meeting with a few final words, or to reschedule it to continue at a later time.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p>The processing of cues during the interruption lag may be relatively automatic, in which case simple manipulations of duration of interruption lag or the availability of cues should affect resumption efficiency. On the other hand, such processing may be deliberate, if it occurs at all, suggesting that it could be trained.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="conclusions" tabindex="-1">Conclusions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#conclusions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Conclusions</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Goal-directed behaviour can be explained with the general memory mechanisms of activation and associative priming.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Activation initially comes from strengthening (or encoding, or “paying attention” to) the target goal and is necessary to keep a goal active during any kind of planning or other mental stimulation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Later, if the goal has been suspended and the time comes to resume it, associative priming is necessary to retrieve it from memory because it will be less active than the goals encoded in the interim.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Associative activation comes from cues linked to the target goal; cues that may lie in the environment or that may lie in long-term mental representations like procedural knowledge.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Cues must be associatively linked to the target goal to be of any use as primes. Cue availability and selection are important factors at goal-encoding time as well as at goal-retrieval time.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/memory-for-goals-an-activation-based-model/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Altmann, E. M., & Trafton, J. G. (2002). Memory for goals: An activation‐based model. Cognitive science, 26(1), 39-83. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2601_2">https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2601_2</a></li>
</ul>
<!-- markdownlint-enable MD007 MD026 MD029 -->
Shneirderman’s 8 Golden Rules of Interface Design2011-04-03T13:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/<p>To improve the usability of an application it is important to have a well designed interface. Shneiderman’s (1998) “Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design” are a guide to good interaction design.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-strive-for-consistency" tabindex="-1">1. Strive for consistency<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#1-strive-for-consistency"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Strive for consistency</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Consistent sequences of actions should be required in similar situations; identical terminology should be used in prompts, menus, and help screens; and consistent commands should be employed throughout.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-enable-frequent-users-to-use-shortcuts" tabindex="-1">2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#2-enable-frequent-users-to-use-shortcuts"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Enable frequent users to use shortcuts</span></a></h2></div>
<p>As the frequency of use increases, so do the user’s desires to reduce the number of interactions and to increase the pace of interaction. Abbreviations, function keys, hidden commands, and macro facilities are very helpful to an expert user.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-offer-informative-feedback" tabindex="-1">3. Offer informative feedback<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#3-offer-informative-feedback"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Offer informative feedback</span></a></h2></div>
<p>For every operator action, there should be some system feedback. For frequent and minor actions, the response can be modest, while for infrequent and major actions, the response should be more substantial.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-design-dialog-to-yield-closure" tabindex="-1">4. Design dialog to yield closure<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#4-design-dialog-to-yield-closure"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Design dialog to yield closure</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Sequences of actions should be organised into groups with a beginning, middle, and end. The informative feedback at the completion of a group of actions gives the operators the satisfaction of accomplishment, a sense of relief, the signal to drop contingency plans and options from their minds, and an indication that the way is clear to prepare for the next group of actions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-offer-simple-error-handling" tabindex="-1">5. Offer simple error handling<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#5-offer-simple-error-handling"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Offer simple error handling</span></a></h2></div>
<p>As much as possible, design the system so the user cannot make a serious error. If an error is made, the system should be able to detect the error and offer simple, comprehensible mechanisms for handling the error.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="6-permit-easy-reversal-of-actions" tabindex="-1">6. Permit easy reversal of actions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#6-permit-easy-reversal-of-actions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Permit easy reversal of actions</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This feature relieves anxiety, since the user knows that errors can be undone; it thus encourages exploration of unfamiliar options. The units of reversibility may be a single action, a data entry, or a complete group of actions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="7-support-internal-locus-of-control" tabindex="-1">7. Support internal locus of control<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#7-support-internal-locus-of-control"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 7. Support internal locus of control</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Experienced operators strongly desire the sense that they are in charge of the system and that the system responds to their actions. Design the system to make users the initiators of actions rather than the responders.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="8-reduce-short-term-memory-load" tabindex="-1">8. Reduce short-term memory load<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#8-reduce-short-term-memory-load"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 8. Reduce short-term memory load</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The limitation of human information processing in short-term memory requires that displays be kept simple, multiple page displays be consolidated, window-motion frequency be reduced, and sufficient training time be allotted for codes, mnemonics, and sequences of actions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="further-reading" tabindex="-1">Further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/shneirderman-8-golden-rules-of-interface-design/#further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<p><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Designing-User-Interface-Ben-Shneiderman/dp/0201694972" title="Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction">Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction</a></p>
Hansen’s user engineering principles for interactive systems2011-04-04T09:53:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/hansen-user-engineering-principles-for-interactive-systems/<p>The ‘feel’ of an interactive system can be compared to the impressions generated by a piece of music. Both can only be experienced over a period of time. With either, the user must abstract the structure of the system from a sequence of details. Each may have a quality of ‘naturalness’ because successive actions follow a logically self-consistent pattern. A good composer can write a new pattern which will seem, after a few listenings, to be so natural the observer wonders why it was never done before.</p>
<p>Just as a composer follows a set of harmonic principles when he writes music, the system designer must follow some set of principles when he designs the sequence of give and take between man and machine. Hansen’s (1972) principles — called user engineering principles — where employed while designing the Emily text editing system.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-know-the-user" tabindex="-1">1. Know the user<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/hansen-user-engineering-principles-for-interactive-systems/#1-know-the-user"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Know the user</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The system designer should try to build a profile of the intended user: their education, experience, interests, how much time they have, their manual dexterity, the special requirements of their problem, their reaction to the behaviour of the system, their patience.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-minimise-memorisation" tabindex="-1">2. Minimise memorisation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/hansen-user-engineering-principles-for-interactive-systems/#2-minimise-memorisation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Minimise memorisation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Because a user forgets, the system must augment their memory.</p>
<ul>
<li>Selection not entry</li>
<li>Names not numbers</li>
<li>Predictable behaviour</li>
<li>Access to system information</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-optimise-operations" tabindex="-1">3. Optimise operations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/hansen-user-engineering-principles-for-interactive-systems/#3-optimise-operations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Optimise operations</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This stresses the physical appearance of the system — the modes and speeds of interaction and the sequence of user actions needed to invoke specific facilities. The guiding principle is that the system should be as unobtrusive as possible, a tool that is wielded almost without conscious effort. The user should be encouraged to think not in terms of the fight pen and keyboard, but in terms of how he wants to change the displayed information.</p>
<ul>
<li>Rapid execution of common operations</li>
<li>Display inertia</li>
<li>Muscle memory</li>
<li>Reorganise command parameters</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-engineer-for-errors" tabindex="-1">4. Engineer for errors<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/hansen-user-engineering-principles-for-interactive-systems/#4-engineer-for-errors"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Engineer for errors</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Modern computers can perform billions of operations without errors. Knowing this, system designers tend to forget that neither users nor system implementers achieve perfection. The system design must protect the user from both the system and themselves.</p>
<ul>
<li>Good error messages</li>
<li>Engineer out the common errors</li>
<li>Reversible actions</li>
<li>Redundancy</li>
<li>Data structure integrity</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="further-reading" tabindex="-1">Further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/hansen-user-engineering-principles-for-interactive-systems/#further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Hansen, W. J. (1971). User Engineering Principles for Interactive Systems. <em>Proceeding AFIPS ’71 (Fall). Proceedings of the November 16-18, 1971, Joint Computer Conference</em>, 523-532. New York, NY, USA: ACM Press. doi: <a href="http://dx.doi.org.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/10.1145/1479064.1479159" title="View the article on the ACM">10.1145/1479064.1479159</a>.</p>
The dimensions of a good experience2011-04-06T10:21:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/<p>Good designs are useful, usable and desirable. But what is a good experience? While crafting the experience of her own startup, <a href="http://www.foodspotting.com/" title="Foodspotting">Foodspotting</a>, <a href="http://flavors.me/ladylexy" title="Alexa Andrzejewski">Alexa Andrzejewski</a> found answers in urban design. Asking the same question about urban experiences, Kevin Lynch, author of <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Good-City-Form-Kevin-Lynch/dp/0262620464/" title="Kevin Lynch - Good City Form">Good City Form</a>, extracted a set of dimensions for evaluating experiences. By applying these principles to interactive experiences, you can identify what kind of experience you’re creating for users: Is it adaptable? Does it tell a story? Are there signs of life? You’ll leave with a set of guidelines that, unlike traditional heuristics, will enable you to evaluate the experiential qualities of your designs.</p>
<p>In her <em>The Dimensions of a Good Experience</em> presentation at <a href="http://aneventapart.com/2011/seattle/" title="An Event Apart in Seattle, 2011">An Event Apart in Seattle, 2011</a>, Andrzejewski shared ten principles from urban design that provide unique lenses for evaluating and thinking about mobile and Web user experience designs.</p>
<p>Luke Wroblewski provides a <a href="http://www.lukew.com/ff/entry.asp?1294" title="Luke Wroblewski's notes on Alexa Andrzejewski's The Dimensions of a Good Experience">handy overview from the talk</a>; my take on his overview is summarised below:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-sense-of-meaning" tabindex="-1">1. Sense of Meaning<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#1-sense-of-meaning"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Sense of Meaning</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design tell a story? How is the form a reflection of its values? Can people read and understand the environment? Visual cues in the environment can communicate meaning. For example, there’s a lot of meaning in the way that Japanese signs are structured. This enables you to read the environment. What story are we trying to tell in our information architecture (IA) through its structural design?</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-sense-of-place" tabindex="-1">2. Sense of Place<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#2-sense-of-place"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Sense of Place</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design leave a lasting impression on the user’s senses? Is it memorable [in a good way]? Focus on those key moments. What should they remember? What story do you want to tell the user and how can you use the language of design to reinforce that story? Show a user a home page that’s unfamiliar to them and ask if they understand the value of the product or service. How well are you communicating?</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-sense-of-structure" tabindex="-1">3. Sense of Structure<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#3-sense-of-structure"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Sense of Structure</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design afford the user a sense of structure? Can they understand that structure? Can the user create an accurate mental model of what they’re looking at? When things fit together, a user will feel comfortable and in control.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-sense-of-unfolding" tabindex="-1">4. Sense of Unfolding<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#4-sense-of-unfolding"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Sense of Unfolding</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design get better the more a user explores? Are they ‘delighted’ by the what’s unfolding before them? Is the first time experience tempered so as not to be overwhelming? How can you get the user to leave wanting more?</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-sense-of-transparency" tabindex="-1">5. Sense of Transparency<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#5-sense-of-transparency"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Sense of Transparency</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design give a glimmer of what’s inside? This is not absolute as different groups demand different levels of transparency.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="6-sense-of-fit" tabindex="-1">6. Sense of Fit<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#6-sense-of-fit"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Sense of Fit</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design anticipate and facilitate the desired needs of the user so that it makes them feel positive? Observe the user throughout the site. Find the drop-off points and fix them. Ask the users questions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="7-sense-of-adaptability" tabindex="-1">7. Sense of Adaptability<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#7-sense-of-adaptability"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 7. Sense of Adaptability</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design afford the user the ability to adapt their surroundings to reach a more comfortable fit? Again, observe your users and learn from their adaptations.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="8-sense-of-access" tabindex="-1">8. Sense of Access<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#8-sense-of-access"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 8. Sense of Access</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design provide a range of choices to the user? How much and what range of choices are presented to a user at any given time? Is it too many or too few? Carry out some A/B tests to find out.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="9-sense-of-responsibility" tabindex="-1">9. Sense of Responsibility<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#9-sense-of-responsibility"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 9. Sense of Responsibility</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design engender a <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/the-four-cs-of-community" title="The Four C's of Community">sense of community</a>, ownership and responsibility with/to your users? Holding people accountable will <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/keep-your-web-20-community-happy" title="Keep Your Community Happy">encourage good behaviour</a>. How can you increase your users’ sense of responsibility to the community or website you’re trying to build?</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="10-sense-of-certainty" tabindex="-1">10. Sense of Certainty<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-dimensions-of-a-good-experience/#10-sense-of-certainty"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 10. Sense of Certainty</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Does the design promote trust? What are the systems of control? Do these reinforce trust? Does your website behave in predictable ways? This is particularly important if your users aren’t actually in control. Examine what makes your users anxious and mitigate against those anxieties. Make your users feel confident.</p>
<p>You need to examine the user experience you’re creating through each of the lenses above. By doing so you will improve the experience for all your users.</p>
Basic performance levels and human error types2011-04-26T22:25:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/<p>Notes on the generic error-modelling system (GEMS) conceptual framework and the origins of basic human error types.</p>
<p>Rasmussen’s skill-rule-knowledge classification of human performance:</p>
<ul>
<li>Skill-based slips (and lapses).</li>
<li>Rule-based mistakes.</li>
<li>Knowledge-based mistakes.</li>
</ul>
<p>Generic Error Modelling System (GEMS)</p>
<ul>
<li>Slips and lapses – actions deviate from current intention due to execution failures and/or storage failures.</li>
<li>Mistakes – actions may run according to plan, but where the plan is inadequate to achieve its desired outcome.</li>
</ul>
<p>The three error types may be differentiated by a variety of processing, representational and task-related factors.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-why-the-slips-mistakes-dichotomy-is-not-enough" tabindex="-1">1. Why the slips-mistakes dichotomy is not enough<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#1-why-the-slips-mistakes-dichotomy-is-not-enough"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Why the slips-mistakes dichotomy is not enough</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Execution failures (slips and lapses) and planning failures (mistakes) were a useful first approximation.</p>
<p>Level of cognitive operation</p>
<ul>
<li>Mistakes occur at the level of intention formation.</li>
<li>Slips and lapses are associated with failures at the more subordinate levels of action selection, execution and intention storage.</li>
</ul>
<p>Both slips and mistakes can take <strong>strong-but-wrong</strong> forms, where the erroneous behaviour is more in keeping with past practice than the current circumstances demand.</p>
<!-- [EXAMPLE ERRORS] -->
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-distinguishing-three-error-types" tabindex="-1">2. Distinguishing three error types<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#2-distinguishing-three-error-types"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Distinguishing three error types</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The three basic error types may be distinguished along a variety of task, representational and processing dimensions.</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th><strong>Performance level</strong></th>
<th><strong>Error type</strong></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><strong>Skill-based</strong></td>
<td>Slips and lapses</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Rule-based</strong></td>
<td>RB mistakes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Knowledge-based</strong></td>
<td>KB mistakes</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="21-type-of-activity" tabindex="-1">2.1. Type of activity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#21-type-of-activity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.1. Type of activity</span></a></h3></div>
<p>A key distinction is the question of whether or not an individual is engaged in <strong>problem solving</strong> at the time an error occurred.</p>
<p>Behaviour at the SB level is primarily a way of dealing with routine and non-problematic activities in familiar situations.</p>
<p>Both RB and KB performance are only called into play <strong>after</strong> the individual has become conscious of a problem, that is, the unanticipated occurrence of some externally or internally produced event or observation that demands the deviation from the current plan.</p>
<p>SB slips generally <strong>precede</strong> the detection of a problem, while RB and KB mistakes arise during <strong>subsequent</strong> attempts to find a solution.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="22-focus-of-attention" tabindex="-1">2.2. Focus of attention<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#22-focus-of-attention"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.2. Focus of attention</span></a></h3></div>
<p>SB level – wherever else the limited attentional resource is being directed at that moment, it will not be focussed on the routine task in hand.</p>
<p>RB and KB levels – the limited attentional focus will not have strayed far from some feature of the problem configuration.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="23-control-mode" tabindex="-1">2.3. Control mode<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#23-control-mode"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.3. Control mode</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Performance at both SB and RB levels is characterised by <strong>feed-forward control</strong> emanating from stored knowledge structures (motor programs, schemata, rules).</p>
<p>SB level performance is based on feed-forward control and depends upon a very flexible and efficient dynamic internal world model.</p>
<p>RB level performance is goal-orientated, but structured by feed-forward control through a stored rule. Very often, the goal is not even explicitly formulated, but is found implicitly in the situation releasing the stored rules.</p>
<p>Control at the KB level is primarily of the feedback kind. This proceeds by setting local goals, observing the extent to which the actions are successful and then modifying them to minimise the discrepancy between the present position and the desired state. It is in essence <strong>error driven</strong>.</p>
<p>Errors at the SB and RB levels occur whole behaviour is under the control of largely automatic units within the knowledge base.</p>
<p>KB errors happen when the individual has ‘run out’ of applicable problem-solving routines and is forced to resort to attentional processing within the conscious workspace.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="24-expertise-and-the-predictability-of-error-types" tabindex="-1">2.4. Expertise and the predictability of error types<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#24-expertise-and-the-predictability-of-error-types"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.4. Expertise and the predictability of error types</span></a></h3></div>
<p>At the SB level, the guidance of action tends to be snatched by the most active motor schema in the ‘vicinity’ of the node at which an attentional check is omitted or mistimed.</p>
<p>At the RB level, the most probable error involves the inappropriate mismatch of environmental signs to the situational component of well-tried ‘troubleshooting’ rules.</p>
<p>At the KB level, when the problem space is largely uncharted territory, it is less easy to specify in advance the shortcuts that might be taken in error.</p>
<p>Mistakes at the KB level have hit-and-miss qualities not dissimilar to the errors of beginners. No matter how expert people are at coping with familiar problems, their performance will begin to approximate that of novices once their repertoire of rules has been exhausted by the demands of a novel situation.</p>
<p>Expertise consists of having a large stock of appropriate routines to deal with a wide variety of contingencies.</p>
<p>Crucial differences between experts and novices lie in both the level and the complexity of their knowledge representation and rules.</p>
<p>Experts have a much larger collection of problem-solving rules than novices.</p>
<p>The more skilled an individual is in carrying out a particular task, the more likely it is that his or her errors will take ‘strong-but-wrong’ forms at the SB and RB levels of performance.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="25-the-ratio-of-error-to-opportunity" tabindex="-1">2.5. The ratio of error to opportunity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#25-the-ratio-of-error-to-opportunity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.5. The ratio of error to opportunity</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Virtually all adult actions, even when directed by knowledge-based processing, have very substantial skill-based and rule-based components.</p>
<p>Skill-based and rule-based processing are the hallmarks of expertise.</p>
<p>It is a safe generalisation to assert that all activities are likely to involve greater amounts of SB and RB processing.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="26-the-influence-of-situational-factors" tabindex="-1">2.6. The influence of situational factors<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#26-the-influence-of-situational-factors"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.6. The influence of situational factors</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Errors at each of the three levels will vary in the degree to which they are shaped by both intrinsic (cognitive biases, attentional limitations) and extrinsic factors (the structural characteristics of the task, context effects).</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="27-detectability" tabindex="-1">2.7. Detectability<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#27-detectability"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.7. Detectability</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Mistakes are harder to detect than slips.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="28-relationship-to-change" tabindex="-1">2.8. Relationship to change<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#28-relationship-to-change"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2.8. Relationship to change</span></a></h3></div>
<p>In SB slips and lapses, the error-triggering changes generally involve a necessary departure from some well-established routine.</p>
<p>In RB mistakes, the nature of the likely changes are, in some degree, anticipated, either as a result of past encounters or because they are considered as likely possibilities. What is lacking is adequate knowledge of when such changes will occur and what precise forms they will take.</p>
<p>At the KB level, mistakes result from changes in the world that have neither been prepared for nor anticipated; the problem solver has encountered a novel situation.</p>
<p>The three error types can therefore be distinguished according to the degree of preparedness that exists prior to change.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-a-generic-error-modelling-system-gems" tabindex="-1">3. A generic error-modelling system (GEMS)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#3-a-generic-error-modelling-system-gems"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. A generic error-modelling system (GEMS)</span></a></h2></div>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th><strong>Dimension</strong></th>
<th><strong>Skill-based errors</strong></th>
<th><strong>Rule-based errors</strong></th>
<th><strong>Knowledge-based errors</strong></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><strong>Type of activity</strong></td>
<td>Routine actions</td>
<td>Problem-solving activities</td>
<td>Problem-solving activities</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Focus of attention</strong></td>
<td>On something other than the task at hand</td>
<td>Directed at problem-related issues</td>
<td>Directed at problem-related issues</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Control mode</strong></td>
<td>Mainly by automatic processors (schemata)</td>
<td>Mainly by automatic processors (stored rules)</td>
<td>Limited, conscious processes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Predictability of error types</strong></td>
<td>Largely predictable <strong>strong-but-wrong</strong> errors (actions)</td>
<td>Largely predictable <strong>strong-but-wrong</strong> errors (rules)</td>
<td>Variable</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Ratio of error to opportunity for error</strong></td>
<td>Though absolute numbers may be high, these constitute a small proportion of the total number of opportunities for error</td>
<td>Absolute numbers small, but opportunity ratio high</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Influence of situational factors</strong></td>
<td>Low to moderate; intrinsic factors (frequency of prior use) likely to exert the dominant influence</td>
<td>Extrinsic factors likely to dominate</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Ease of detection</strong></td>
<td>Detection usually fairly rapid an effective</td>
<td>Difficult and often only achieved through external intervention</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><strong>Relationship to change</strong></td>
<td>Knowledge of change not accessed at proper time</td>
<td>When and how anticipated change will occur unknown</td>
<td>Changes not prepared for or anticipated</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Operations divided into two areas:</p>
<ul>
<li>Those that <strong>precede</strong> the detection of a problem (the SB level).</li>
<li>Those that <strong>follow</strong> it (the RB and KB levels).</li>
</ul>
<p>Errors (slips and lapses) occurring prior to problem detection are seen as being mainly associated with <strong>monitoring failures</strong>, while those that appear subsequently (RB and KB mistakes) are subsumed under the general heading of <strong>problem-solving failures</strong>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="31-monitoring-failures" tabindex="-1">3.1. Monitoring failures<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#31-monitoring-failures"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3.1. Monitoring failures</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Well-practised actions carried out by skilled individuals in familiar surroundings comprise segments of pre-programmed behavioural sequences interspersed with attentional checks upon progress. These checks involve bringing the higher levels of the cognitive system (the ‘workspace’) momentarily into the control loop in order to establish:</p>
<ol>
<li>Whether the actions are running according to plan; and</li>
<li>More complexly, whether the plan is still adequate to achieve the desired outcome.</li>
</ol>
<p>Slips and lapses involve <strong>inattention</strong>, omitting to make a necessary check. But a significant number of action slips are also due to <strong>overattention</strong>, making an attentional check at an inappropriate point in an automated action sequence.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/human-error-monitoring-failures.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/human-error-monitoring-failures.png" alt="Flow diagram outlining the dynamics of the generic error-modelling system (GEMS)." />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: Outlining the dynamics of the generic error-modelling system (GEMS).</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="32-problem-solving-failures" tabindex="-1">3.2. Problem-solving failures<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#32-problem-solving-failures"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3.2. Problem-solving failures</span></a></h3></div>
<p>A problem can be defined as a situation that requires a revision of the currently instantiated programme of action.</p>
<p>The departures from routine demanded by these situations can range from relatively minor contingencies, swiftly dealt with by pre-established corrective procedures, to entirely novel circumstances, requiring new plans and strategies to be derived from first principles.</p>
<p>“Humans, if given a choice, would prefer to act as context-specific pattern recognisers rather than attempting to calculate or optimise.” Rouse, 1981.</p>
<p>GEMS asserts that when confronted with a problem, humans are strongly biased to search for and find a pre-packaged solution at the RB level <strong>before</strong> resorting to the far more effortful KB level, even where the latter is demanded at the outset.</p>
<p>Only when people become aware that successive cycling around this rule-based route is failing to offer a satisfactory solution will the move down to the KB level take place.</p>
<p>Human beings are pattern matchers. They are strong disposed to exploit the parallel and automatic operations of specialised, pre-established processing units: schemata, frames, scripts and memory organising packets. These knowledge structures are capable of simplifying the problem configuration by filling in the gaps left by missing or incomprehensible data on the basis of ‘default values’.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="33-what-determines-switching-between-levels" tabindex="-1">3.3. What determines switching between levels?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#33-what-determines-switching-between-levels"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3.3. What determines switching between levels?</span></a></h3></div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="331-between-the-sb-and-rb-levels" tabindex="-1">3.3.1. Between the SB and RB levels<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#331-between-the-sb-and-rb-levels"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3.3.1. Between the SB and RB levels</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The RB level is engaged when an attentional check upon progress detects a deviation from planned-for conditions.</p>
<p>If the deviation is minor and appropriate corrective rules are readily found, this phase will be terminated by a rapid return to the SB level.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="332-between-the-rb-and-kb-levels" tabindex="-1">3.3.2. Between the RB and KB levels<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#332-between-the-rb-and-kb-levels"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3.3.2. Between the RB and KB levels</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The switch from RB to the KB level occurs when the problem solver realises that none of his or her repertoire of rule-based solutions is adequate to cope with the problem.</p>
<p>Affective factors (subjective uncertainty and concern) are likely to play an important rôle.</p>
<p>Unconscious search for analogous problem-solving ‘packets’ will proceed in parallel with conscious ‘topographic’ reasoning.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="333-between-the-kb-and-sb-levels" tabindex="-1">3.3.3. Between the KB and SB levels<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#333-between-the-kb-and-sb-levels"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3.3.3. Between the KB and SB levels</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Activity at the KB level can be stopped by finding an adequate (or apparently so) solution to the problem. This will constitute a new plan of action requiring the execution of a fresh set of SB routines.</p>
<p>There will be rapid switching to and from the SB and KB levels until performance is back on some familiar track.</p>
<p>A plan of action represents a revised theory of the world and confirmation biases will lead to its continued retention, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Such ‘secondary errors’ may also be rendered more likely by the reduction in anxiety that accompanies the discovery of an apparent solution.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-failure-modes-at-the-skill-based-level" tabindex="-1">4. Failure modes at the skill-based level<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#4-failure-modes-at-the-skill-based-level"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Failure modes at the skill-based level</span></a></h2></div>
<!-- Below is a summary of the main headings for the failure modes at each of the three performance levels.
Skill-based performance:
- Inattention
- Double-capture slips
- Omissions associated with interruptions
- Reduced intentionality
- Perceptual confusions
- Interference errors: blends and spoonerisms
- Overattention
- Omisions
- Repetitions
- Reversals
Rule-based performance:
- Misapplication of good rules
- First exceptions
- Countersigns and nosigns
- Informational overload
- Rule strength
- General rules
- Redundancy
- Rigidity
- Application of bad rules
- Encoding deficiencies
- Action deficiencies
- Wrong rules
- Inelegant rules
- Inadvisable rules
Knowledge-based performance:
- Selectivity
- Workspace limitations
- Out of sight out of mind
- Confirmation bias
- Overconfidence
- Biased reviewing
- Illusionary correlation
- Halo effects
- Problems with causality
- Problems with complexity
- Problems with delayed feedback
- Insufficient consideration of processes in time
- Difficulties with exponential developments
- Thinking in causal series not causal nets
- Thematic vagabonding
- Encysting -->
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="41-inattention-omitted-checks" tabindex="-1">4.1. Inattention (omitted checks)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#41-inattention-omitted-checks"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.1. Inattention (omitted checks)</span></a></h3></div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="411-double-capture-slips" tabindex="-1">4.1.1. Double-capture slips<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#411-double-capture-slips"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.1.1. Double-capture slips</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The greater part of the limited attentional resource is claimed either by some internal pre-occupation or by some external distractor at a time when a higher order intervention is needed to set the action along the currently intended pathway.</p>
<p>The necessary conditions for their occurrence:</p>
<ul>
<li>The performance of some well-practised activity in familiar surroundings.</li>
<li>An intention to depart from custom.</li>
<li>A departure point beyond which the ‘strengths’ of the associated action schemata are markedly different.</li>
<li>Failure to make appropriate attentional checks.</li>
</ul>
<p>The result is a <strong>strong habit intrusion</strong>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="412-omissions-associated-with-interruptions" tabindex="-1">4.1.2. Omissions associated with interruptions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#412-omissions-associated-with-interruptions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.1.2. Omissions associated with interruptions</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The failure to make the attentional check is compounded by some external event.</p>
<p>“I picked up my coat to go out when the phone rang. I answered it and then went out the front door without my coat.”</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="413-reduced-intentionality" tabindex="-1">4.1.3. Reduced intentionality<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#413-reduced-intentionality"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.1.3. Reduced intentionality</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Some delay intervenes between the formulation of an intention to do something and the time for this activity to be executed. This intention will probably become overlaid by other demands upon the conscious workspace.</p>
<p><strong>Detached intentions</strong> – “I intended to close the window, but closed the cupboard door instead.”</p>
<p><strong>Environmental capture</strong> – “I went into my bedroom intending to fetch my book. I took off my rings, looked in the mirror and came out again.”</p>
<p><strong>What-am-I-doing-here</strong> experiences.</p>
<p><strong>I-should-be-doing-something-but-I-can’t-remember-what</strong> experiences.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="414-perceptual-confusions" tabindex="-1">4.1.4. Perceptual confusions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#414-perceptual-confusions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.1.4. Perceptual confusions</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Occur because the recognition schemata accept as a match for the proper object something that looks like it, is in the expected location or does a similar job.</p>
<p>Recognition schemata as well as action schemata become automatised to the extent that they accept rough rather than precise approximations of expected inputs.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="415-interference-errors-blends-and-spoonerisms" tabindex="-1">4.1.5. Interference errors: blends and spoonerisms<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#415-interference-errors-blends-and-spoonerisms"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.1.5. Interference errors: blends and spoonerisms</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Two currently active plans or, within a single plan, tow action elements, can become entangled in the struggle to gain control of the effectors.</p>
<p>“I had just finished a conversation on the telephone when my secretary ushered in some visitors. I got up from my desk to greet them and said ‘Smith speaking’.”</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="42-over-attention-mistimed-checks" tabindex="-1">4.2. Over-attention: mistimed checks<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#42-over-attention-mistimed-checks"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4.2. Over-attention: mistimed checks</span></a></h3></div>
<p>When an attentional check is omitted, the reins of action or perception are likely to be snatched by some contextually appropriate strong habit (action schema) or expected pattern (recognition schema).</p>
<p>Slips can also arise from exactly the opposite process when focal attention interrogates the progress of an action sequence at a time when control is best left to automatic ‘pilot’.</p>
<p>Omission – forgetting to switch on the kettle.</p>
<p>Repetition – pouring a second kettle of water into an already full teapot.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-failure-modes-at-the-rule-based-level" tabindex="-1">5. Failure modes at the rule-based level<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#5-failure-modes-at-the-rule-based-level"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Failure modes at the rule-based level</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In any given situation, a number of rules may compete for the right to represent the current state of the world. The system is extremely ‘parallel’ in that many rules may be active simultaneously.</p>
<p>Success in this race for instantiation depends upon:</p>
<ul>
<li>The rule should be <strong>matched</strong> either to salient features of the environment, or to the contents of some internally generated message.</li>
<li>A rule’s competitiveness depends critically on its <strong>strength</strong>, the number of times a rule has been performed successfully in the past.</li>
<li>The more <strong>specifically</strong> a rule describes the current situation, the more likely it is to win.</li>
<li>Success depends upon a degree of <strong>support</strong> a competing rule receives from other rules.</li>
</ul>
<p>Rule-based errors fall into two general categories:</p>
<ul>
<li>RB mistakes that arise from the <strong>misapplication of good rules</strong></li>
<li>RB mistakes that arise form the <strong>application of bad rules</strong></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="51-the-misapplication-of-good-rules" tabindex="-1">5.1. The misapplication of good rules<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#51-the-misapplication-of-good-rules"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1. The misapplication of good rules</span></a></h3></div>
<p>A ‘good rule’ is one with proven utility in a particular situation, but may be misapplied in environmental conditions that share some common features with these appropriate states, but also possess elements demanding a different set of actions.</p>
<p><strong>Strong-but-wrong</strong> rules.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="511-the-first-exceptions" tabindex="-1">5.1.1. The first exceptions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#511-the-first-exceptions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.1. The first exceptions</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The <strong>strong-but-now-wrong</strong> rule will be applied.</p>
<p>Example: checking your wing mirror before leaving your parking space, you see a red car. Doubling checking via your rear-view mirror you see a red car some distance away. Pulling out of the space, you nearly collide with a red car. There were two of them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="512-signs-countersigns-and-non-signs" tabindex="-1">5.1.2. Signs, countersigns and non-signs<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#512-signs-countersigns-and-non-signs"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.2. Signs, countersigns and non-signs</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Situations that should invoke exceptions to a more general rule do not necessarily declare themselves in an unambiguous fashion, particularly in complex, dynamic, problem solving tasks.</p>
<p>Three kinds of information present:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Signs</strong> – inputs that satisfy some or all of the conditional aspects of the appropriate rule.</li>
<li><strong>Countersigns</strong> – inputs that indicate that the more general rule is inapplicable.</li>
<li><strong>Non-signs</strong> – inputs which do not relate to any existing rule, but which constitute noise within the pattern recognition system.</li>
</ul>
<p>All three types of input may be present simultaneously within a given informational array.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="513-information-overload" tabindex="-1">5.1.3. Information overload<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#513-information-overload"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.3. Information overload</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The difficulty detecting countersigns is further compounded by the abundance of information confronting the problem solver in most real-life situations.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="514-rule-strength" tabindex="-1">5.1.4. Rule strength<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#514-rule-strength"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.4. Rule strength</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The chance of a particular rule gaining victory in the ‘race’ to provide a description or a prediction for a given problem situation depends critically upon its previous ‘form’, or the number of times it has achieved a successful outcome in the past.</p>
<p>The cognitive system is biased to favour strong rather than weak rules whenever the matching conditions are less than perfect.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="515-general-rules-are-likely-to-be-stronger" tabindex="-1">5.1.5. General rules are likely to be stronger<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#515-general-rules-are-likely-to-be-stronger"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.5. General rules are likely to be stronger</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Situations matching higher-level rules will be <strong>stronger</strong> than those lower down by virtue of their greater frequency of encounter in the world.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="516-redundancy" tabindex="-1">5.1.6. Redundancy<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#516-redundancy"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.6. Redundancy</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Certain features of the environment will, with experience, become increasingly significant, while others will dwindle in their importance.</p>
<p>The acquisition of human skill is dependent upon the gradual appreciation of the <strong>redundancy</strong> present in the informational input.</p>
<p>Some cues will receive far more attention than others and this deployment bias will favour previously informative signs rather than the rarer countersigns.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="517-rigidity" tabindex="-1">5.1.7. Rigidity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#517-rigidity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.7. Rigidity</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Rule usage is subject to ‘cognitive conservatism’.</p>
<p>There’s a strong and stubborn tendency towards applying the familiar but cumbersome solution when simpler, more elegant solutions are readily available.</p>
<p>If a rule has been employed successfully in the past, then there is an almost overwhelming tendency to apply it again, even though the circumstances no longer warrant its use.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="518-general-versus-specific-rules" tabindex="-1">5.1.8. General versus specific rules<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#518-general-versus-specific-rules"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.1.8. General versus specific rules</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Where the individuating information is detected and where the ‘action’ consequences do not conflict with much stronger rules at a higher level, then people will operate at the more specific level.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="52-the-application-of-bad-rules" tabindex="-1">5.2. The application of bad rules<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#52-the-application-of-bad-rules"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.2. The application of bad rules</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Two broad classes:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Encoding deficiencies</strong> – features of a particular situation are either not encoded at all or are misrepresented in the conditional component of the rule.</li>
<li><strong>Action deficiencies</strong> – the action component yields unsuitable, inelegant or inadvisable responses.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="521-a-developmental-perspective" tabindex="-1">5.2.1. A developmental perspective<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#521-a-developmental-perspective"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.2.1. A developmental perspective</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Three-stage process describing how children acquire adequate problem-solving routines (Karmiloff-Smith):</p>
<ul>
<li>Phase 1. <strong>Procedural Phase</strong> – at an early developmental stage, the behavioural output of the child is primarily data-driven.</li>
<li>Phase 2. <strong>Meta-procedural Phase</strong> – behaviour is guided predominantly by rather rigid top-down knowledge structures (meaningful categories).</li>
<li>Phase 3. <strong>Conceptual Phase</strong> – performance is guided by subtle control mechanisms that modulate the interaction between data-driven and top-down processing. A balance is struck between environmental feedback and rule-structures; neither predominates.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="522-encoding-deficiencies-in-rules" tabindex="-1">5.2.2. Encoding deficiencies in rules<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#522-encoding-deficiencies-in-rules"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.2.2. Encoding deficiencies in rules</span></a></h4></div>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Certain properties of the problem space are not encoded at all.</strong></p>
<p>There are phases during the acquisition of complex skills when the cognitive demands of some component of the total activity screen out rule sets associated with other, equally important aspects.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Certain properties of the problem space may be encoded inaccurately.</strong></p>
<p>The feedback necessary to disconfirm bad rules may be misconstrued or absent altogether.</p>
<p>‘Intuitive’ or ‘naïve’ physics – the erroneous beliefs people hold about the properties of the physical world.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>An erroneous general rule may be protected by the existence of domain-specific exception rules</strong></p>
<p>The problem solver encounters relatively few exceptions to the general rule, as in the case of the impetus-based assumptions of naïve physics.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="523-action-deficiencies-in-rules" tabindex="-1">5.2.3. Action deficiencies in rules<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#523-action-deficiencies-in-rules"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5.2.3. Action deficiencies in rules</span></a></h4></div>
<p>The action component of a problem-solving rule can be ‘bad’ in varying degrees.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Wrong rules</strong> – errors in subtraction sums arise not from the incorrect recall of numbers, but from applying incorrect strategies.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Inelegant or clumsy rules</strong> – many problems afford the possibility of multiple routes to a solution. Some of these are efficient, elegant and direct; others are clumsy, circuitous and occasionally bizarre. In a forgiving environment or in the absence of expert instruction, some of these inelegant solutions become established as part of the rule-based repertoire.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Inadvisable rules</strong> – the rule-based solution may be perfectly adequate to achieve its immediate goal most of the time, but its regular employment can lead, on occasions, to avoidable accidents. The behaviour is not wrong (in the sense that it generally achieves its objective, though it may violate established codes or operating procedures), it does not have to be clumsy or inelegant, nor does it fall into the ‘plain crazy’ category; it is, in the long run, simply inadvisable.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>“If near-accidents usually involve an initial error followed by error recovery, more may be learned about the technique of successful error recovery than about how the original error might have been avoided.”</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="6-failure-modes-at-the-knowledge-based-level" tabindex="-1">6. Failure modes at the knowledge-based level<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#6-failure-modes-at-the-knowledge-based-level"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Failure modes at the knowledge-based level</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Two basic sources:</p>
<ul>
<li>‘Bounded rationality’ and</li>
<li>An incomplete or inaccurate mental model of the problem space.</li>
</ul>
<p>A ‘problem configuration’ is defined as the set of cues, indicators, signs, symptoms and calling conditions that are immediately available to the problem solver and upon which he or she works to find a solution.</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Static configurations</strong> – problems in which the physical characteristics of the problem space remain fixed regardless of the activities of the problem solver.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Reactive-dynamic configurations</strong> – the problem configuration changes as a direct consequence of the problem solver’s actions.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Multiple-dynamic configurations</strong> – the configuration can change both as a result of the problem solver’s activities and, spontaneously, due to independent situational or system factors.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Different configurations require different strategies and, as a consequence, elicit different forms of problem-solving pathology.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="61-selectivity" tabindex="-1">6.1. Selectivity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#61-selectivity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.1. Selectivity</span></a></h3></div>
<p>An important source of reasoning errors lies in the selective processing of task information. Mistakes will occur if attention is given to the wrong features or not given to the right features. Accuracy of reasoning performance is critically dependent upon whether the problem solver’s attention is directed to the <strong>logically important</strong> rather than the <strong>psychologically salient</strong> aspects of the problem configuration.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="62-workspace-limitations" tabindex="-1">6.2. Workspace limitations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#62-workspace-limitations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.2. Workspace limitations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Reasoners at the KB level interpret the features of the problem configuration by fitting them into an integrated model.</p>
<p>The workspace operates by a ‘first in, first out’ principle.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="63-out-of-sight-out-of-mind" tabindex="-1">6.3. Out-of-sight, out-of-mind<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#63-out-of-sight-out-of-mind"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.3. Out-of-sight, out-of-mind</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The <strong>availability heuristic</strong> has two faces:</p>
<ul>
<li>One gives undue weight to facts that come readily to mind.</li>
<li>The other ignores that which is not immediately present.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="64-confirmation-bias" tabindex="-1">6.4. Confirmation bias<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#64-confirmation-bias"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.4. Confirmation bias</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Conformation bias has its roots in <strong>effort after meaning</strong>. In the face of ambiguity, it rapidly favours one available interpretation and is then loath to part with it.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="65-overconfidence" tabindex="-1">6.5. Overconfidence<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#65-overconfidence"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.5. Overconfidence</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Problem solvers and planners tend to justify their chosen course of action by focusing on evidence that favours it and by disregarding contradictory signs. This is compounded by the confirmation bias exerted by a completed plan of action.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="66-biased-reviewing-the-check-off-illusion" tabindex="-1">6.6. Biased reviewing: the ‘check-off’ illusion<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#66-biased-reviewing-the-check-off-illusion"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.6. Biased reviewing: the ‘check-off’ illusion</span></a></h3></div>
<p>“Have I taken account of all possible factors bearing upon my choice of action?”</p>
<p>In retrospect, we fail to observe that the conscious workspace was, at any one moment, severely limited in its capacity and that its contents were rapidly changing fragments rather than systematic reviews of relevant material.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="67-illusory-correlation" tabindex="-1">6.7. Illusory correlation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#67-illusory-correlation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.7. Illusory correlation</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Problem solvers are poor at detecting many types of covariation.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="68-halo-effects" tabindex="-1">6.8. Halo effects<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#68-halo-effects"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.8. Halo effects</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Problem solvers will show a predilection for single orderings and an aversion to discrepant orderings.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="69-problems-with-causality" tabindex="-1">6.9. Problems with causality<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#69-problems-with-causality"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.9. Problems with causality</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Problem solvers tend to oversimplify causality. Because they are guided primarily by the stored recurrences of the past, they will be inclined to underestimate the irregularities of the future.</p>
<p>Causal analysis influenced by <strong>representativeness</strong> and the <strong>availability</strong> heuristics.</p>
<p>Problem solvers may also suffer from ‘creeping determinism’ or <strong>hindsight bias</strong>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="610-problems-with-complexity" tabindex="-1">6.10. Problems with complexity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#610-problems-with-complexity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.10. Problems with complexity</span></a></h3></div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="6101-the-uppsala-dessy-studies" tabindex="-1">6.10.1. The Uppsala DESSY studies<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#6101-the-uppsala-dessy-studies"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.10.1. The Uppsala DESSY studies</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Subjects fail to form any truly predictive model of the situation. Instead, they are primarily data-driven. This works well if feedback is immediate, but not if there is some form of delay.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="6102-the-bamberg-lohhausen-studies" tabindex="-1">6.10.2. The Bamberg Lohhausen studies<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#6102-the-bamberg-lohhausen-studies"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.10.2. The Bamberg Lohhausen studies</span></a></h4></div>
<p>Mistakes divided into two groups:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Primary mistakes</strong> made by almost all subjects</li>
<li><strong>Poor performance mistakes</strong></li>
</ul>
<p>Primary mistakes:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Insufficient consideration of processes in time</strong> – subjects were more interested in the way things are now than in considering how they had developed over previous years.</li>
<li><strong>Difficulties in dealing with exponential development</strong> – subjects invariable underestimated their rate of change an were constantly surprised at their outcomes.</li>
<li><strong>Thinking in causal series instead of causal nets</strong> – subjects have a tendency to think in linear sequences. They are sensitive to the main effects of their actions upon the path to an immediate goal, but remain unaware of their side effects upon the remainder of the system.</li>
</ul>
<p>Poor performance mistakes:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Thematic vagabonding</strong> – “whenever subjects have difficulties dealing with a topic, they leave it alone, so that they don’t have to face their own helplessness more than necessary.”</li>
<li><strong>Encysting</strong> – mediated by bounded rationality, a poor self-assessment and a desire to escape from the evidence of ones own inadequacy.</li>
</ul>
<p>Confirmation biases become more marked with the experience of failure. Subjects look for confirming rather than disconfirming evidence.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="611-problems-of-diagnosis-in-every-day-situations" tabindex="-1">6.11. Problems of diagnosis in every day situations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#611-problems-of-diagnosis-in-every-day-situations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6.11. Problems of diagnosis in every day situations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The root of the problem in everyday diagnoses appears to be located in the complex interaction between two logical reasoning tasks:</p>
<ul>
<li>One serves to identify critical symptoms and the factual elements of the presented situation needing an explanation;</li>
<li>The other is concerned with verifying whether the symptoms have been explained and whether the supplied situational factors are compatible with the favoured explanatory scenario.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/basic-performance-levels-and-human-error-types/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Reason, J. (1990). Human Error. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139062367">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139062367</a></li>
</ul>
Gestalt principles of perception2011-05-02T16:49:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/<p>Gestalt psychology is a theory of mind and brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analogue, with self-organising tendencies.</p>
<p>The Gestalt effect is the form-generating capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.</p>
<p>In psychology, <em>gestaltism</em> is often opposed to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralism">structuralism</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt">Wundt</a>. The phrase “The whole is greater than the sum of the parts” is often used when explaining Gestalt theory.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="theoretical-framework-and-methodology" tabindex="-1">Theoretical framework and methodology<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#theoretical-framework-and-methodology"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Theoretical framework and methodology</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The school of Gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research.</p>
<p>Theoretical principles:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Principle of Totality</strong> – the conscious experience must be considered globally (by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously) because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a system of dynamic relationships.</li>
<li><strong>Principle of Psychophysical Isomorphism</strong> – a correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity.</li>
</ul>
<p>Based upon the principles above, the following methodologies are defined:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Phenomenon of Experimental Analysis</strong> – in relation to the Totality Principle any psychological research should take as a starting point phenomenon and not be solely focused on sensory qualities.</li>
<li><strong>Biotic Experiment</strong> – the school of Gestalt established a need to conduct real experiments, which sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, what would be habitual for a subject.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="principles-of-gestalt-systems" tabindex="-1">Principles of Gestalt systems<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#principles-of-gestalt-systems"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Principles of Gestalt systems</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The key principles of Gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multi-stability and invariance.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="emergence" tabindex="-1">Emergence<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#emergence"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Emergence</span></a></h3></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-emergence.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-emergence.png" alt="Gestalt principle: Emergence" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: Gestalt principle – Emergence</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Emergence is the process of complex pattern formation from simpler rules. It is demonstrated by the perception of the Dog Picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognised by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog is perceived as a whole, all at once. However, this is a description of what occurs in vision and not an explanation. Gestalt theory does not explain how the percept of a dog emerges.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="reification" tabindex="-1">Reification<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#reification"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Reification</span></a></h3></div>
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<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-reification.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-reification.png" alt="Gestalt principle: Reification" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 2: Gestalt principle – Reification</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Reification is the <em>constructive</em> or <em>generative</em> aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.</p>
<p>For instance, a triangle will be perceived in picture A, although no triangle has actually been drawn. In picture C the eye will recognise disparate shapes as “belonging” to a single shape. In B a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.</p>
<p>Reification can be explained by progress in the study of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_contours">illusory contours</a>, which are treated by the visual system as “real” contours.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="multi-stability" tabindex="-1">Multi-stability<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#multi-stability"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Multi-stability</span></a></h3></div>
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<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-multi-stability.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-multi-stability.png" alt="Gestalt principle: Multi-stability" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 3: Gestalt principle – Multi-stability</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Multi-stability (or multi-stable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations.</p>
<p>This is seen for example in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necker_cube">Necker cube</a>, and in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubin_vase">Rubin‘s Figure/Vase</a> illusion shown here. Other examples include the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impossible_trident">Impossible trident</a> and artist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._C._Escher">M. C. Escher‘s</a> artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other.</p>
<p>Again, Gestalt does not explain how images appear multi-stable, only that they do.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="invariance" tabindex="-1">Invariance<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#invariance"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Invariance</span></a></h3></div>
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<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-invariance.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-principle-invariance.png" alt="Gestalt principle: Invariance" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 4: Gestalt principle – Invariance</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognised independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features.</p>
<p>For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognised as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognised despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have had more success in explaining how objects are classified.</p>
<p>Emergence, reification, multi-stability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to be modelled individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="figure-ground-organisation" tabindex="-1">Figure-ground organisation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#figure-ground-organisation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Figure-ground organisation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Elements are perceived as either figures (distinct elements of focus) or ground (the background or landscape on which the figures rest).</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-figure-ground-organisation.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-figure-ground-organisation.png" alt="Gestalt: Figure-ground organisation" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 5: Gestalt – Figure-ground organisation. Example from <a href="https://uxmisfit.com/2019/04/23/ui-design-in-practice-gestalt-principles/">uxmisfit.com</a>.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="gestalt-laws-of-perceptual-organisation" tabindex="-1">Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#gestalt-laws-of-perceptual-organisation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Gestalt laws are rules that describe how the human eye perceives visual elements. These principles aim to show how complex scenes can be reduced to more simple shapes. They also aim to explain how the eyes perceive the shapes as a single, united form rather than the separate simpler elements involved.</p>
<p>1. <strong>Law of Closure</strong> – the mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in order to complete a regular figure (that is, to increase regularity).</p>
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<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-closure.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-closure.png" alt="Gestalt: Law of Closure" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 6: Gestalt – Law of Closure</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>2. <strong>Law of Similarity</strong> – the mind groups similar elements into collective entities or totalities. These similarities may depend upon relationships of form, colour, size or brightness.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-similarity.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-similarity.png" alt="Gestalt: Law of Similarity" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 7: Gestalt – Law of Similarity.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>3. <strong>Law of Proximity</strong> – spatial or temporal grouping of elements may induce the mind to perceive a collective or totality.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-proximity.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-proximity.png" alt="Gestalt: Law of Proximity" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 8: Gestalt – Law of Proximity</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>4. <strong>Law of Symmetry</strong> (Prägnanz; figure ground relationships) – symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite of distance.</p>
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<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-symmetry.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-symmetry.png" alt="Gestalt: Law of Symmetry" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 9: Gestalt – Law of Symmetry</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>5. <strong>Law of Continuity</strong> – the mind continues visual, auditory and kinetic patterns.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-continuity.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-continuity.png" alt="Gestalt: Law of Continuity" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 10: Gestalt – Law of Continuity</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>6. <strong>Law of Common Fate</strong> – elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-common-fate.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/gestalt-law-of-common-fate.png" alt="Gestalt: Law of Common Fate" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 11: Gestalt – Law of Common Fate</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/gestalt-principles-of-perception/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://andyrutledge.com/gestalt-principles-1-figure-ground-relationship.html">Andy Rutledge’s series on Gestalt principles</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/topics/gestalt-principles">Gestalt principles article on Interaction Design Foundation</a></li>
<li><a href="https://uxmisfit.com/2019/04/23/ui-design-in-practice-gestalt-principles/">UI Design in Practice: Gestalt Principles</a></li>
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology">Gestalt psychology on Wikipedia</a></li>
</ul>
Design Principles – The Philosophy of UX2011-05-03T14:33:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/<p>The visual principles of harmony, unity, contrast, emphasis, variety, balance, proportion, pattern and direction (and others) are widely recognised and practiced, even when they aren’t formally articulated. But creating a good design doesn’t automatically mean creating a good experience. In order for us to cultivate positive experiences for our users, we need to establish a set of guiding principles for experience design.</p>
<p>Guiding principles are the broad philosophy or fundamental beliefs that steer an organisation, team or individual’s decision making, irrespective of the project goals, constraints, or resources.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://whitneyhess.com/blog/" title="Whitney Hess">Whitney Hess</a>‘ <em>Design Principles: The Philosophy of UX</em> presentation at <a href="http://aneventapart.com/2011/boston/" title="An Event Apart in Boston, 2011">An Event Apart in Boston, 2011</a>, she shared a universally-applicable set of experience design principles that we should all strive to follow, and will explore how you can create and use your own guiding principles to take your site or product to the next level.</p>
<p>Jeremy Keith provides a <a href="http://adactio.com/journal/4535/" title="Jeremy Keith's overview of Whitney Hess' Design Principles: The Philosophy of UX">handy overview from the talk</a> as does <a href="http://www.lukew.com/ff/entry.asp?1312" title="Luke Wroblewski's overview of Whitney Hess' Design Principles: The Philosophy of UX">Luke Wroblewski</a>, some of which is summarised below:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="universal-user-experience-principles" tabindex="-1">Universal User Experience Principles<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#universal-user-experience-principles"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Universal User Experience Principles</span></a></h2></div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="1-stay-out-of-peoples-way" tabindex="-1">1. Stay out of people’s way<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#1-stay-out-of-peoples-way"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Stay out of people’s way</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The <a href="http://www.tumblr.com/" title="Tumblr homepage">Tumblr homepage</a> does this. You can find out more about Tumblr further down the page, but it doesn’t assume that’s what you want to have thrust in your face. Instead the primary content is all about getting started with Tumblr straight away.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="2-create-a-hierarchy-that-matches-peoples-needs" tabindex="-1">2. Create a hierarchy that matches people’s needs<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#2-create-a-hierarchy-that-matches-peoples-needs"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Create a hierarchy that matches people’s needs</span></a></h3></div>
<p>This is about prioritisation. <a href="https://www.mint.com/" title="Mint.com">Mint.com</a> uses different font sizes to match the hierarchy of importance on its “ways to save” page. Give the most crucial elements the greatest prominence. Use hierarchy to help people process information.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="3-limit-distractions" tabindex="-1">3. Limit distractions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#3-limit-distractions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Limit distractions</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Don’t put pregnancy test kits next to condoms. On the web, <a href="http://www.wanderfly.com/" title="Wanderfly">Wanderfly</a> does this right: one single path, completely self-contained. Multi-tasking is a myth. Let people focus on one task. Design for consecutive tasks, not concurrent.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="4-provide-strong-information-scent" tabindex="-1">4. Provide strong information scent<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#4-provide-strong-information-scent"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Provide strong information scent</span></a></h3></div>
<p><a href="http://www.quora.com/" title="Quora">Quora</a> does a great job at this with its suggested search options. It’s actively helping you choose the right one. People don’t like to guess haphazardly, they like to follow their nose.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="5-provide-signposts-and-cues" tabindex="-1">5. Provide signposts and cues<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#5-provide-signposts-and-cues"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Provide signposts and cues</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Labelling is important. The <a href="http://www.neimanmarcus.com/" title="Neiman Marcus">Neiman Marcus</a> e-commerce site does this right. It’s always clear where you are: the navigation is highlighted. You’d think that in 2011 this would be standard but you’d be surprised. Never let people get lost, especially on the web where there’s a limitless number of paths. Show people where they came from and where they’re going.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="6-provide-context" tabindex="-1">6. Provide context<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#6-provide-context"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Provide context</span></a></h3></div>
<p>A sign that says “Back in 30 minutes” isn’t helpful if you’re in a hurry—you don’t know when the sign was put up. On the web, <a href="http://www.airbnb.com/" title="AirBnB">AirBnB</a> provides everything you need to know on a listing page, all in one place. It’s self-contained and everything is communicated up-front.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="7-use-constraints-appropriately" tabindex="-1">7. Use constraints appropriately<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#7-use-constraints-appropriately"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 7. Use constraints appropriately</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Preventing error is a lot better than recovering from it. If you know there are restrictions ahead of time, stop people from going down that route in the first place.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="8-make-actions-reversible" tabindex="-1">8. Make actions reversible<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#8-make-actions-reversible"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 8. Make actions reversible</span></a></h3></div>
<p><a href="http://www.rememberthemilk.com/" title="Remember The Milk">Remember The Milk</a> provides an “undo?” link with almost every action. There’s no such thing as perfect design; people will make errors, so you should have a contingency plan. Undo is probably the most powerful control you can provide to people.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="9-provide-feedback" tabindex="-1">9. Provide feedback<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#9-provide-feedback"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 9. Provide feedback</span></a></h3></div>
<p>How do you know when you’re asthma inhaler is empty? You don’t. You won’t find out until the worst moment. On the Web, loading indicators provide useful feedback. Tell people that a task is underway. Design is a conversation, not a monologue.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="10-make-a-good-first-impression" tabindex="-1">10. Make a good first impression<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#10-make-a-good-first-impression"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 10. Make a good first impression</span></a></h3></div>
<p><a href="http://vimeo.com/" title="Vimeo">Vimeo</a> has one of the best first-time user experiences: “Welcome. You’re new, aren’t you?” Establish the rules, set expectations about the relationship you’re about to initiate on your site.</p>
<p>The basis for all of these principles are Aristotle’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Aristotle's modes of persuasion">modes of persuasion</a>: ethos (ethical appeal), pathos (emotional appeal) and logos (rational appeal)—the rhetorical triangle.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="your-own-principles" tabindex="-1">Your Own Principles<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux/#your-own-principles"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Your Own Principles</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Are universal principles enough? Every product has its own goals. So you might need to create your own to guide you toward the right experience for your service. Companies like <a href="http://www.google.com/corporate/tenthings.html" title="Ten principles that contribute to a Googley user experience">Google</a>, <a href="http://www.facebook.com/principles.php" title="Facebook's principles">Facebook</a>, <a href="http://www.microsoft.com/about/corporatecitizenship/en-us/our-focus/operating-responsibly/windows-principles.aspx" title="Microsoft Window's principles">Microsoft</a>, and others have their own design principles. Without principles we don’t know what we are trying to achieve.</p>
<p>Remember, user experience is the establishment of a philosophy of how to treat people; help people make their lives better.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.slideshare.net/whitneyhess/design-principles-the-philosophy-of-ux" title="Slideshare: Design Principles - The Philosophy of UX">Whitney’s presentation</a> can be found on Slideshare.</p>
A Design Thinker’s personality profile2011-05-05T09:40:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/a-design-thinkers-personality-profile/<p>Contrary to popular opinion, you don’t need weird shoes or a black turtleneck to be a design thinker. Nor are design thinkers necessarily created only by design schools, even though most professionals have had some kind of design training. Many people outside professional design have a natural aptitude for design thinking, which the right development and experiences can unlock.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Thinking like a designer can transform the way you develop products, services, processes – and even strategy.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>In an <a href="http://www.ideo.com/images/uploads/thoughts/IDEO_HBR_Design_Thinking.pdf" title="Harvard Business Review: Tim Brown on Design Thinking">article for the Harvard Business Review</a> in June, 2008, <a href="http://www.ideo.com/people/tim-brown" title="Tim Brown of IDEO">Tim Brown of IDEO</a> outlined some characteristics to look for in design thinkers:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Empathy.</strong> They can imagine the world from multiple perspectives – those of colleagues, clients, end users, and customers (current and prospective). By taking a “people first” approach, design thinkers can imagine solutions that are inherently desirable and meet explicit or latent needs. Great design thinkers observe the world in minute detail. They notice things that others do not and use their insights to inspire innovation.</li>
<li><strong>Integrative thinking.</strong> They not only rely on analytical processes (those that produce either/or choices) but also exhibit the ability to see all of the salient – and sometimes contradictory – aspects of a confounding problem and create novel solutions that go beyond and dramatically improve on existing alternatives. (See <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Opposable-Mind-Successful-Integrative-Thinking/dp/1422118924" title="Roger Martin’s The Opposable Mind: How Successful Leaders Win Through Integrative Thinking">Roger Martin’s The Opposable Mind: How Successful Leaders Win Through Integrative Thinking.</a>)</li>
<li><strong>Optimism.</strong> They assume that no matter how challenging the constraints of a given problem, at least one potential solution is better than the existing alternatives.</li>
<li><strong>Experimentalism.</strong> Significant innovations don’t come from incremental tweaks. Design thinkers pose questions and explore constraints in creative ways that proceed in entirely new directions.</li>
<li><strong>Collaboration.</strong> The increasing complexity of products, services, and experiences has replaced the myth of the lone creative genius with the reality of the enthusiastic interdisciplinary collaborator. The best design thinkers don’t simply work alongside other disciplines; many of them have significant experience in more than one. They can be engineers <em>and</em> marketers, anthropologists <em>and</em> industrial designers, architects <em>and</em> psychologists.</li>
</ul>
Human error and user-interface design2011-05-07T18:06:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/<p>“To err is human, to forgive is the role of the computer interface.”</p>
<p>“If an error is possible, someone will make it. The designer must assume that all possible errors will occur and design so as to minimise the chance of the error in the first place, or its effects once it gets made. Errors should be easy to detect, they should have minimal consequences and, if possible, their effects should be reversible.” (Norman, 1988)</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="classifying-human-error" tabindex="-1">Classifying human error<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#classifying-human-error"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Classifying human error</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Error can be defined in terms of either the <em>action</em> or the <em>consequences of the action</em>.</p>
<p>Errors cannot be defined by considering human performance in isolation, but have to be defined in reference to human intentions or expectations. (Rasmussen, 1982)</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="human-error-categories" tabindex="-1">Human error categories<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#human-error-categories"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Human error categories</span></a></h2></div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="slips-and-mistakes" tabindex="-1">Slips and mistakes<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#slips-and-mistakes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Slips and mistakes</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Norman (1981) identified two important distinctions for human errors:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Slips are failures of execution</strong> – the plan for the action may be correct, but the actions do not go as planned.</li>
<li><strong>Mistakes are planning failures</strong> – the action may go as planned, but the plan itself is wrong.</li>
</ul>
<p>Rasmussen (1986) proposed a three-level hierarchy:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Skill-based</strong> – behaviour that is without conscious control.</li>
<li><strong>Rule-based</strong> – behaviour that is with conscious control, in familiar situations, using stored rules or procedures.</li>
<li><strong>Knowledge-based</strong> – behaviour that is exhibited in unfamiliar situations.</li>
</ul>
<p>Reason (1990) identified three basic error types within Rasmussen’s hierarchy:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Skill-based slips</strong> – errors at this level arise from speed-accuracy trade-offs, intrinsic variability of the human operator, capture by motor schemata etc. Errors occur due to fallibility in perception, attention, memory or execution.</li>
<li><strong>Rule-based mistakes</strong> – errors at this level involve failures in the selection or application of problem-solving rules. Errors occur due to application of wrong rules, incorrect recall of rules, reliance on an under-specified cue set and interference from familiar rules.</li>
<li><strong>Knowledge-based mistakes</strong> – errors at this level arise due to the “trial and error” learning involved in novel situations. Errors occur due to the hypothesis testing process, resource limitations or interference in functional reasoning due to false analogies.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="cognitive-control-and-systematic-error-mechanisms" tabindex="-1">Cognitive control and systematic error mechanisms<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#cognitive-control-and-systematic-error-mechanisms"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Cognitive control and systematic error mechanisms</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Rasmussen and Vicente (1987) propose an error taxonomy:</p>
<ol>
<li>Errors related to learning and adaptation.</li>
<li>Errors due to interference among competing cognitive control structures.</li>
<li>Errors due to lack of resources.</li>
<li>Errors due to intrinsic human variability.</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="error-capture-and-recovery" tabindex="-1">Error capture and recovery<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#error-capture-and-recovery"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Error capture and recovery</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Lewis and Norman (1995) propose that the effort should be to maximise the discovery of error (error capture), to make it easier to recover from error (error recovery), and to minimise the incidence of error.</p>
<p>Possible system responses:</p>
<ul>
<li>Gag – prevent the user from continuing.</li>
<li>Warn – e.g., beeps, text messages.</li>
<li>Do nothing – e.g., clicking on a disabled control provides no visible change.</li>
<li>Self-correct – e.g., word processor auto-correct function</li>
<li>Let’s talk about it – the system responds by initiating a dialogue with the user, e.g., co-operative problem solving.</li>
<li>Teach me – the system asks for further clarification.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Error messages</strong> – a useful error message is one that not only tells the user what went wrong, but also provides some information on how to take the right action (remedial information).</p>
<p><strong>Feedback</strong> – feedback on the effects of actions should be provided to the user. Such feedback facilitates error recovery by supporting functional understanding and also helps knowledge-based monitoring.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="error-reduction-issues-and-guidelines" tabindex="-1">Error reduction: issues and guidelines<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#error-reduction-issues-and-guidelines"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Error reduction: issues and guidelines</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Rasmussen and Vicente (1987):</p>
<ul>
<li>Interface design should aim at making the limits of acceptable performance visible to the users, while the effects are still observable and reversible.</li>
<li>Provide feedback on the effects of actions to allow the user to cope with the delay between the execution of an intention and the observation of its effect.</li>
<li>Make overview displays available to avoid capture errors at the skill-based level.</li>
<li>Support memory with the externalisation of the effective mental-models.</li>
<li>Develop consistent information transformation concepts for data integration to enable the interface to present information at the level that is most appropriate for decision-making.</li>
<li>Support of memory items, acts and data, which are not part of the integrated “gestalt”, can be useful.</li>
</ul>
<p>Interface design principles that can be applied to minimise the consequences of human error include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Ensure consistency across interfaces.</li>
<li>Provide good conceptual models or metaphors.</li>
<li>Reduce or account for mode, capture or description errors.</li>
<li>Provide visibility through affordances.</li>
<li>Provide appropriate constraints and mapping.</li>
<li>Reduce the gap between the gulf of execution and the gulf of evaluation.</li>
<li>Provide appropriate communication and feedback.</li>
<li>Facilitate multiple activities.</li>
<li>Understand cultural biases.</li>
<li>Use colour.</li>
<li>Provide online help.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="designing-for-error-tolerance" tabindex="-1">Designing for error tolerance<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#designing-for-error-tolerance"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Designing for error tolerance</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Interfaces should be error tolerant, i.e., allow for errors but minimise their effect.</p>
<p>Senders and Moray (1991) suggest that eliminating the opportunity for error severely limits the range of possible behaviour and thus inhibits trial and error learning, which is helpful in discovering new ways to perform tasks. They argue that the key is to reduce the undesirable consequences of the error, not necessarily the error itself.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="conclusion" tabindex="-1">Conclusion<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#conclusion"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Conclusion</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Human error cannot be separated from human performance.</p>
<p>Errors are part of the learning process and as such systems/interfaces should be designed to be error tolerant.</p>
<p>It should be possible for the user to explore the system without penalty, discover what the consequences are for different actions and be able to recover from those consequences.</p>
<p>Wherever possible, the system should capture error at the earliest feasible instance and provide the user with a feedback that is specific and useful in correcting the error.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/human-error-and-user-interface-design/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Prasad V. Prabhu, Girish V. Prabhu, (1997) <a href="ttps://doi.org/10.1016/B978-044481862-1.50088-1">Chapter 22 - Human Error and User-Interface Design</a>, Editor(s): Marting G. Helander, Thomas K. Landauer, Prasad V. Prabhu, Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction (Second Edition), North-Holland, Pages 489-501, ISBN 9780444818621.</li>
</ul>
Categorisation of action slips in human error2011-05-08T11:42:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/categorisation-of-action-slips-in-human-error/<p>A slip is an error that occurs when a person does an action that is not intended.</p>
<p>The path from intention to action consists of the activation of the parent schema that corresponds to the intention, the activation of the child schemas for the component parts of the action sequence and then the appropriate triggering of schemas when the conditions match those required for their operations.</p>
<p>The three major categories of slips are:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Errors in the formation of the intention</strong>, which includes the subcategories of mode and description errors;</li>
<li><strong>Faulty activation of schemas</strong>, which includes the subcategories of capture errors, data-driven and associative actions, loss of intention and misordering of action components; and</li>
<li><strong>Faulty triggering</strong>, which includes the subcategories of spoonerisms, blends, intrusions of thoughts and premature triggering.</li>
</ul>
<p>One interesting aspect of slips is peoples’ ability (or inability) to detect them. Many slips are caught at the time they are made. Sometimes they are caught just prior to their occurrence, but with insufficient time to prevent the act, or at least the initial stages of the act.</p>
<p>For a slip to be started, yet caught, means that there must exist some monitoring that is separate from that responsible for the selection and execution of the act.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="intention-parent-and-child-schemas" tabindex="-1">Intention, parent and child schemas<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/categorisation-of-action-slips-in-human-error/#intention-parent-and-child-schemas"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Intention, parent and child schemas</span></a></h2></div>
<p>A schema is an organised body of knowledge, including procedural knowledge that can direct the flow control of motor activity.</p>
<p>Each schema is assumed to cover only a limited range of knowledge or actions. As a result, any given action sequence must be specified by a rather large ensemble of schemas, organised in a hierarchical control structure.</p>
<p>One schema may need to invoke other schemas, passing to them particular values that the variables of the schemas must assume for the particular actions to be performed.</p>
<p>Information passes both down from the higher-order schemas to the lower ones and back up from the lower-order schemas to higher ones.</p>
<p>Numerous schemas will be activated at any given time. Implications:</p>
<ul>
<li>Any given action sequence is usually quite complex, involving a large number of component schemas.</li>
<li>Many (most) action sequences require considerable time to be completed. Multiple intentions and schemas are usually active at any given time. The determination of the appropriate triggering conditions for a given schema is a critical factor in the correct performance of the act.</li>
</ul>
<p>Schemas only invoke actions when they have been triggered and this requires satisfaction of trigger conditions plus a sufficiently high level of activation.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="theory-of-action-to-the-interpretation-of-slips" tabindex="-1">Theory of action to the interpretation of slips<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/categorisation-of-action-slips-in-human-error/#theory-of-action-to-the-interpretation-of-slips"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Theory of action to the interpretation of slips</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The theory of action permits numerous opportunities for slips:</p>
<ul>
<li>Errors in the selection of the intention.</li>
<li>Errors in the specification of components.</li>
<li>Errors of performance when schemas are triggered out of order or when a relevant schema is missed.</li>
<li>Errors resulting from the intrusion of unwanted activities and thoughts.</li>
<li>Errors resulting from the occurrence of an event that triggers an unintended response.</li>
<li>Errors resulting from a well learned, familiar habit taking control of the action.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="classification-of-slips-based-on-their-presumed-sources" tabindex="-1">Classification of slips based on their presumed sources<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/categorisation-of-action-slips-in-human-error/#classification-of-slips-based-on-their-presumed-sources"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Classification of slips based on their presumed sources</span></a></h2></div>
<ol>
<li>
<p><strong>Slips that result from errors in the formation of the intention.</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Errors that are not classified as slips; errors in the determination of goals, in decision making an problem solving and other related aspects of the determination of an intention.</li>
<li>Mode errors: erroneous classification of the situation.</li>
<li>Description errors: ambiguous or incomplete specification of the intention.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Slips that result from faulty activation of schemas.</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Unintentional activation</strong>: when schemas not part of a current action sequence become activated for extraneous reasons, then become triggered and lead to slips.
<ul>
<li>Capture errors: when a sequence being performed is similar to another more frequent or better-learned sequence, the latter may capture control.</li>
<li>Data-driven activation: external events cause activation of schemas.</li>
<li>Associative activation: currently active schemas activate others with which they are associated.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Loss of activation</strong>: when schemas that have been activated lose activation, thereby losing effectiveness to control behaviour.
<ul>
<li>Forgetting an intention (but continuing with the action sequence).</li>
<li>Mis-ordering the components of an action sequence.</li>
<li>Skipping steps in an action sequence.</li>
<li>Repeating steps in an action sequence.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Slips that result from faulty triggering of active schemas.</strong></p>
<ul>
<li><strong>False triggering</strong>: a properly activated schema is triggered at an inappropriate time.
<ul>
<li>Spoonerisms: reversal of event components.</li>
<li>Blends: combinations of components from two competing schemas.</li>
<li>Thoughts leading to actions: triggering of schemas meant only to be thought, not to govern action.</li>
<li>Premature triggering.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Failure to trigger</strong>: when an active schema never gets invoked
<ul>
<li>The action was pre-empted by competing schemas.</li>
<li>There was insufficient activation, either as a result of forgetting or because the initial level was too low.</li>
<li>There was a failure of the trigger condition to match, either because the triggering conditions were badly specified or the match between occurring conditions and the required conditions was never sufficiently close.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="error-monitoring" tabindex="-1">Error monitoring<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/categorisation-of-action-slips-in-human-error/#error-monitoring"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Error monitoring</span></a></h2></div>
<p>For a slip to be detected, the monitoring mechanism must be made aware of the discrepancy between intention and act.</p>
<p>The basic control sequence is from intention to triggering the action. The only way for an error to be detected is for it to occur within the action triggering mechanism or in the actual mechanics of performing the response.</p>
<p>Each level of the specification of the intention must be decomposed into more basic levels in order for an action to take place, each new decomposition more finely dividing the actions required and more precisely specifying what must be done. And each new level of specification is, in turn, decomposed into its basic components, until some primitive level of act specification is reached. Feedback and monitoring is required at each level.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/categorisation-of-action-slips-in-human-error/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Norman, D. A. (1981). Categorization of action slips. Psychological Review, 88(1), 1–15. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.1.1">https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.1.1</a></li>
</ul>
The controlled experiment approach to evaluating user interfaces2011-05-08T17:26:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/<p>The question most commonly asked: “Does making a change to the value of variable x have a significant effect on the value of variable y?”</p>
<ul>
<li>x could be an interface or interaction feature.</li>
<li>y could be the time to complete task, number of errors, work load, the user’s subjective satisfaction, etc.</li>
</ul>
<p>Controlled experiments are more widely used in HCI research than in practice (costs of design and running experiments outweigh their benefits).</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-method" tabindex="-1">The Method<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#the-method"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Method</span></a></h2></div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="1-participants" tabindex="-1">1. Participants<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#1-participants"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Participants</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Consider what the appropriate user population is:</p>
<ul>
<li>A representative sample of the user population is recruited as participants (not always feasible).</li>
<li>If a non-representative sample of users is involved, consequences must be considered.</li>
<li>How many participants to recruit depends upon power of statistical tests, time available for study, ease of recruiting participants, incentives available for participant rewards, etc.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="2-ethical-considerations" tabindex="-1">2. Ethical considerations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#2-ethical-considerations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Ethical considerations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Blandford et al. (2008) – VIP:</p>
<ul>
<li>Vulnerable participants.</li>
<li>Informed consent.</li>
<li>Privacy, confidentiality and trust.</li>
</ul>
<p>Ensure all participants are informed of the purpose of the study and what will be done with the data.</p>
<p>Anonymise data where possible.</p>
<p>Offer the participants the opportunity to talk about the experiment in a debriefing session after they have finished the tasks.</p>
<p>Data stored in accordance with legislation:</p>
<ul>
<li>UK Data Protection Act.</li>
<li>Need to register with the government if identifiable data is stored.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="3-design-dependent-and-independent-variables" tabindex="-1">3. Design: Dependent and independent variables<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#3-design-dependent-and-independent-variables"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Design: Dependent and independent variables</span></a></h3></div>
<p>A controlled experiment tests a hypothesis – the effects of a design change on a measurable performance indicator.</p>
<p>Hypothesis example:</p>
<p>“A particular combination of speech and key-press input will greatly enhance the speed and accuracy of people sending text messages on their mobile phone.”</p>
<p>The aim of the experiment is to formally fail to prove the null hypothesis.</p>
<p>For the above hypothesis: You design an experiment, which in all fairness ought not to make any difference to the speed and accuracy of the texting.</p>
<p>The assumption that there is no difference between designs is the <em>null hypothesis</em>.</p>
<p>The study is designed to show that the interaction has no effect, within the bounds of probability.</p>
<p>The failure to prove the null hypothesis provides evidence that there is a causal relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.</p>
<p>Variables:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Independent variable(s)</strong> – the variable that is intentionally varied (one or many).</li>
<li><strong>Dependent variable(s)</strong> – the variable that is measured (time, error rate, workload).</li>
<li><strong>Confounding variable(s)</strong> – variables that are unintentionally varied between conditions of the experiment and which affect the measured values of the dependent variable.
<ul>
<li>Example: testing two interfaces for text entry it could be that you use two different messages between devices, therefore affecting entry time.</li>
<li>Example: Complexity of certain words, using dictionary mode vs. not, using natural language vs. “text speak”.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p>A simple answer to the texting example is to make sure each message is input on each device.</p>
<p>The aim is to vary the <em>independent variable</em> in a known manner, to measure the <em>dependent variable(s)</em> and to minimise the affects of the <em>confounding variables</em> on the outcome of the study.</p>
<ul>
<li>Avoid different rooms, different computers.</li>
<li>Randomise variables such as the time of day.</li>
<li>Be aware of differences between individuals.
<ul>
<li>Men vs. women</li>
<li>Personality</li>
<li>Aesthetic sensibilities</li>
<li>Cognitive skills</li>
<li>Age</li>
<li>Education level</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="4-design-within-subjects-or-between-subjects" tabindex="-1">4. Design: “Within Subjects” or “Between Subjects”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#4-design-within-subjects-or-between-subjects"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Design: “Within Subjects” or “Between Subjects”</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Subjects:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Within subjects</strong> – each participant performs under all sets of conditions.</li>
<li><strong>Between subjects</strong> – each participant only performs under one condition.</li>
<li><strong>Mixed factoral</strong> – One independent variable is within subjects and another is between subjects.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="within-vs-between" tabindex="-1">Within vs. between<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#within-vs-between"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Within vs. between</span></a></h4></div>
<ul>
<li>Are participants required to compare interfaces (therefore a within subjects design)?</li>
<li>Are there likely to be unwelcome learning or interface effects across conditions (therefore a between subjects design)?</li>
<li>What statistical tests are planned?</li>
<li>Time take to complete the task? (The longer the time, the less likely a within subjects design can be used).</li>
<li>How easy is it to recruit participants? (The more people, the more feasible a between subjects design is).</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="within-subjects" tabindex="-1">Within subjects<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#within-subjects"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Within subjects</span></a></h4></div>
<ul>
<li>Advantage: individual differences are less likely to influence results.</li>
<li>Disadvantage: possible learning effects, complex statistics.</li>
<li>Participants typically required to repeat similar procedures multiple times with different values of the independent variable.</li>
<li>Advisable to generate multiple tasks, one for each condition, for each participant to perform.
<ul>
<li>The task becomes an independent variable, but one with no direct interest in analysis.</li>
<li>Different tasks/values sometimes referred to as levels.</li>
<li>Example, 2 independent variables: mode of navigation (speech, key-press), mode of message (speech, predictive text, multi-tap).</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Nav \ Message</th>
<th>Speech</th>
<th>Predictive text</th>
<th>Multi-tap</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Speech</td>
<td>Condition 1</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Key-press</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>6</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="5-apparatus-and-materials" tabindex="-1">5. Apparatus and materials<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#5-apparatus-and-materials"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Apparatus and materials</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>Software simulators</li>
<li>[Smartphone] emulators</li>
</ul>
<p>Often require some programming skills to create prototypes.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="6-procedure" tabindex="-1">6. Procedure<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#6-procedure"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Procedure</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The procedure describes what the participants are going to do during the experiment.</p>
<ul>
<li>Ensures that every participant in the experiment has the same experience, which helps eliminate confounds.<br />
Example, study of young vs. old – you don’t want to treat the latter more deferentially.</li>
<li>Allows others to replicate the experiment – the basis of “good science” – which helps eliminate confounds between entirely different attempts.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h4 id="minimising-the-effect-of-confounds" tabindex="-1">Minimising the effect of confounds<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#minimising-the-effect-of-confounds"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Minimising the effect of confounds</span></a></h4></div>
<ul>
<li>Control the order of the experiments –performance effects (learning), novelty effects.</li>
<li>Control the tasks that the participants are to perform – devise different tasks to avoid learning effects and reduce boredom.</li>
<li>Control the context in which the study is run – using a different computer or room, different time of day. Innocuous changes can influence results.</li>
</ul>
<p>A systematic approach to variation is appropriate.</p>
<ul>
<li>“Latin square” design – a grid in which every element appears precisely once in each row and each column.
<ul>
<li>The row represents the order in which elements are administered.</li>
<li>The column represents the sequence of participants.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Group \ Task</th>
<th>First</th>
<th>Second</th>
<th>Third</th>
<th>Fourth</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>One</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>B</td>
<td>C</td>
<td>D</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Two</td>
<td>B</td>
<td>C</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Three</td>
<td>C</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>B</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Four</td>
<td>D</td>
<td>A</td>
<td>B</td>
<td>C</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>Mixed factoral example – order of presentation of tasks and interfaces are systematically varied to eliminate order effects.</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Group \ Task</th>
<th>First</th>
<th>Second</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>One</td>
<td>Interface 1, Task A</td>
<td>Interface 2, Task B</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Two</td>
<td>Interface 1, Task B</td>
<td>Interface 2, Task A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Three</td>
<td>Interface 2, Task A</td>
<td>Interface 1, Task B</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Four</td>
<td>Interface 2, Task B</td>
<td>Interface 1, Task A</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="masking-the-experiment-robust" tabindex="-1">Masking the experiment robust<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#masking-the-experiment-robust"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Masking the experiment robust</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>Clear and consistent task instructions.
<ul>
<li>Level of detail required.</li>
<li>Reasonable time limit.</li>
<li>Engaging.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Piloting the experiment to ensure people behave as anticipated.
<ul>
<li>Ensure correct data is being gathered.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Ensure all equipment is working properly.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="bigger-investigations" tabindex="-1">Bigger investigations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#bigger-investigations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Bigger investigations</span></a></h3></div>
<ul>
<li>Probes the phenomenon more deeply.</li>
<li>Series of limited experiments each of which involves a simple controlled manipulation.</li>
<li>More reliable to conduct a series of investigations.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/controlled-experiment-approach-to%E2%80%93evaluating-user-interfaces/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Cairns, P., & Cox, A. L. (Eds.). (2008). Research methods for human-computer interaction. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814570">https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814570</a></li>
</ul>
How to make Design Thinking part of the innovation drill2011-05-09T12:50:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-to-make-design-thinking-part-of-the-innovation-drill/<p>The myth of creative genius is resilient. We believe that great ideas pop fully formed out of brilliant minds, in feats of imagination well beyond the abilities of mere mortals. But Design Thinking is neither a sudden breakthrough nor the lightning strike of genius; it is the result of hard work augmented by a creative human-centred discovery process, followed by iterative cycles of prototyping, testing, and refinement.</p>
<p>The design process is best described metaphorically as a system of spaces rather than a predefined series of orderly steps. The spaces demarcate different sorts of related activities that together form the continuum of innovation. Design thinking can feel chaotic to those experiencing it for the first time. But over the life of a project participants come to see that the process makes sense and achieves results, even though its architecture differs from the linear, milestone-based processes typical of other kinds of business activities.</p>
<p>Design projects must ultimately pass through three spaces. These include “inspiration”, for the circumstances (be they a problem, an opportunity, or both) that motivate the search for solutions; “ideation”, for the process of generating, developing, and testing ideas that may lead to solutions; and “implementation”, for the charting of a path to market. Projects will loop back through these spaces – particularly the first two – more than once as ideas are refined and new directions taken.</p>
<p>In an <a href="http://www.ideo.com/images/uploads/thoughts/IDEO_HBR_Design_Thinking.pdf">article for the Harvard Business Review</a> in June, 2008, <a href="http://www.ideo.com/people/tim-brown">Tim Brown of IDEO</a> describes what is needed to make Design Thinking part of the innovation drill.</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Begin at the beginning.</strong> Involve design thinkers at the very start of the innovation process, before any direction has been set. Design thinking will help you explore more ideas more quickly than you could otherwise.</li>
<li><strong>Take a human-centred approach.</strong> Along with business and technology considerations, innovation should factor in human behaviour, needs, and preferences. Human-centred design thinking – especially when it includes research based on direct observation – will capture unexpected insights and produce innovation that more precisely reflects what consumers want.</li>
<li><strong>Try early and often.</strong> Create an expectation of rapid experimentation and prototyping. Encourage teams to create a prototype in the first week of a project. Measure progress with a metric such as average time to first prototype or number of consumers exposed to prototypes during the life of a program.</li>
<li><strong>Seek outside help.</strong> Expand the innovation ecosystem by looking for opportunities to co-create with customers and consumers. Exploit social networks to enlarge the effective scale of your innovation team.</li>
<li><strong>Blend big and small projects.</strong> Manage a portfolio of innovation that stretches from shorter-term incremental ideas to longer-term revolutionary ones. Expect business units to drive and fund incremental innovation, but be willing to initiate revolutionary innovation from the top.</li>
<li><strong>Budget to the pace of innovation.</strong> Design thinking happens quickly, yet the route to market can be unpredictable. Don’t constrain the pace at which you can innovate by relying on cumbersome budgeting cycles. Be prepared to rethink your funding approach as projects proceed and teams learn more about opportunities.</li>
<li><strong>Find talent any way you can.</strong> Look to hire from interdisciplinary programs like the <a href="http://dschool.stanford.edu/" title="Stanford Institute of Design">Institute of Design at Stanford</a>, progressive business schools like <a href="http://www.rotman.utoronto.ca/index.html" title="Rotman School of Management">Rotman in Toronto</a> and the <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/uclic/" title="UCL Interaction Centre">Human-Computer Interaction</a> and <a href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/anthropology/digital-anthropology/" title="UCL Digital Anthropology">Digital Anthropology</a> courses at UCL in London. People with more conventional design backgrounds can push solutions far beyond your expectations. You may even be able to train non-designers with the right attributes to excel in design-thinking roles.</li>
<li><strong>Design for the cycle.</strong> In many businesses people move every 12 to 18 months. But design projects may take longer than that to get from day one through implementation. Plan assignments so that design thinkers go from inspiration to ideation to implementation. Experiencing the full cycle builds better judgment and creates great long-term benefits for the organisation.</li>
</ul>
Plans and situated actions – The problem of human-machine communication2011-05-17T16:06:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="plans" tabindex="-1">Plans<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#plans"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Plans</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The organisation and significance of human action lies in plans. This view of purposeful action is the basis for traditional philosophies of rational action and behavioural science.</p>
<p>Plans are prerequisite to and prescribe action at every level of detail.</p>
<p>Those who adopt the planning model as a basis for interaction between people and machines draw on 3 related theories about mutual intelligibility of action:</p>
<ol>
<li>The planning model itself, which takes the significance of action to be derived from plans and identifies the problem for interaction as their recognition and coordination.</li>
<li>Speech act theory, which accounts for the recognisability of plans or intentions by proposing conventional rules for their expression.</li>
<li>The idea of shared background knowledge as the common resource that stands behind individual action and gives it social meaning.</li>
</ol>
<p>A plan is a sequence of actions designed to accomplish some preconceived end. The model posits that action is a form of problem solving, where the actor’s problem is to find a path from some initial state to a desired goal state, given certain conditions along the way.</p>
<p>Actions are described, at whatever level of detail, by their preconditions and their consequences.</p>
<p>In problem solving systems, actions are described by (Allen, 1984):</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Prerequisites</strong> – that which must be true to enable the action.</li>
<li><strong>Effects</strong> – that which must be true after the action has occurred.</li>
<li><strong>Decomposition</strong> – how the action is performed, which is typically a sequence of sub-actions.</li>
</ul>
<p>The planning model attempts to bring concerted action under the jurisdiction of the individual actor by attaching to the others in the actors world sufficient description and granting to the actor sufficient knowledge that he/she is able to respond to the actions of others as just another set of environmental conditions. The problem of social interaction, consequently, becomes an extension of the problem of the individual actor.</p>
<p>The problem for interaction is to recognise the actions of others as the expression of their underlying plans.</p>
<p>The ‘same’ action as a matter of intended effect can be achieved in any number of ways, where the ways are contingent on circumstance rather than on definitional properties of the action.</p>
<p>Although an action can be accounted for post-hoc with reference to its intended effect, an action’s course cannot be predicted from knowledge of the actors intent, nor can the course be inferred from observation of the outcome.</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>Causal definition of action</strong> – i.e., the pre and post conditions that must hold to say the action has occurred, independent of the method.</li>
<li><strong>Action’s characterisation</strong> – a particular method or procedure for the accomplishment of an action.</li>
</ul>
<p>Throughout the process of plan attribution, the problem to be solved by the subject remains ‘ill informed’. At any given time, neither the range of possible plans that the other might be carrying out, nor the criteria for accessing just what plan is actually in effect, are clearly defined.</p>
<p>Plans are a constituent of practical action, but they are constituent as an artefact of our <em>reasoning about</em> action, not as the generative <em>mechanism of</em> action.</p>
<p>The planning model takes over our common-sense preoccupation with the anticipation of action and the review of its outcomes and attempts to systematise that reasoning as a model for action while ignoring the actual stuff, the situated action, which is the reasoning’s object.</p>
<p>An action’s significance seems to lie in as much in what it presupposes and implies about its situation as in any explicit or observable behaviour.</p>
<p>What we do and what we understand others to be doing is informed by assumptions about the person’s significance.</p>
<p>For cognitive science, the background of action is not the world as such, but <em>knowledge</em> about the world.</p>
<p>The claim is that our knowledge of the everyday world is organised by a “predetermined, stereotyped sequence of actions that define a well-known situation” or script.</p>
<p>Every situation, in other words, has its plan made up of ordered action sequences, each action producing the conditions that enable the next action to occur.</p>
<p>The normative order of these action sequences can be thrown off course by any one of <em>distractions</em>, <em>obstacles</em> or <em>errors</em>.</p>
<p><em>An obstacle to the normal sequence occurs when someone or something prevents a normal action from occurring or some enabling condition for the action is absent. An error occurs when the action is completed in an inappropriate manner, so that the normal consequences of the action do not come about.</em></p>
<p>Not only does the typical script proceed according to a normal sequence of actions, but also each script has its typical obstacles and errors that, like the script itself, are stored in memory along with their remedies and retrieved and applied as needed.</p>
<p>Whereas plans associate intentions with action sequences, scripts associate action sequences with typical situations.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="situated-actions" tabindex="-1">Situated Actions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#situated-actions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Situated Actions</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Every course of action depends in essential ways on its material and social circumstances.</p>
<p>The approach is to study how people use their circumstances to achieve intelligent action.</p>
<p>Five propositions:</p>
<ol>
<li>Plans are representations of situated actions.</li>
<li>In the course of situated action, representation occurs when otherwise transparent activity becomes in some way problematic.</li>
<li>The objectivity of the situations of our action is achieved rather than given.</li>
<li>A central resource for achieving the objectivity of situations is language, which stands in a generally indexical relationship to the circumstances that it presupposes, produces and describes.</li>
<li>As a consequence of the indexicality of language, mutual intelligibility is achieved on each occasion of interaction with reference to situation particulars rather than being discharged once and for all by a stable body of shared meanings.</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="1-plans-are-representations-of-action" tabindex="-1">1. Plans are representations of action<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#1-plans-are-representations-of-action"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Plans are representations of action</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Plans are resources for situated action but do not in any strong sense determine its course.</p>
<p>Example ‘canoeists’ plan: “I’ll get as far over to the left as possible, try to make it between those two large rocks, then backferry hard to make it around that next bunch.”</p>
<p>A great deal of deliberation, discussion, simulation and reconstruction may go into such plan, but, however detailed, the plan stops short of the actual business of getting your canoe through the falls.</p>
<p>The purpose of the plan in this case is to orientate you in such a way that you can obtain the best possible position from which to use those embodied skills on which your success depends.</p>
<p>We generally do not anticipate alternative courses of action or their consequences until <em>some</em> course of action is already underway.</p>
<p>In many cases, it is only after we encounter some state of affairs that we find to be desirable that we identify that state as the goal toward which our previous actions, in retrospect, were directed ‘all along’ or ‘after all’. (Garfinkle, 1976).</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="2-representation-and-breakdown" tabindex="-1">2. Representation and breakdown<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#2-representation-and-breakdown"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Representation and breakdown</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Although we can always construct rational accounts of situated action before and after the fact, when action is proceeding smoothly it is essentially transparent to us.</p>
<p>Situated action is not made explicit by rules and procedures. When situation becomes in some way problematic, rules and procedures are explicated for purposes of deliberation and the action, which is otherwise neither rule-based no procedural, is then made accountable to them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="3-the-practical-objectivity-of-situations" tabindex="-1">3. The practical objectivity of situations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#3-the-practical-objectivity-of-situations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. The practical objectivity of situations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The environment of our actions is made up of a succession of situations that we walk into and to which we respond.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="4-the-indexicality-of-language" tabindex="-1">4. The indexicality of language<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#4-the-indexicality-of-language"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. The indexicality of language</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Our shared understanding of situations is due to the efficiency of language.</p>
<p>Language takes its significance from the world, whilst also transforming the world into something that can be thought of and talked about.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="5-the-mutual-intelligibility-of-action" tabindex="-1">5. The mutual intelligibility of action<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#5-the-mutual-intelligibility-of-action"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. The mutual intelligibility of action</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Language is not only anchored in but also constitutes the situation of its use.</p>
<p>We walk into a situation, identify its features and match our actions to it. This implies that, on any given occasions, the concrete situation must be recognisable as an instance of a class of typical situations and the behaviour of the actor must be recognisable as an instance of a class of appropriate actions.</p>
<p>Rather than actions being <em>determined by</em> rules, actors <em>effectively use</em> the normative rules of conduct that are available to produce significant actions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plans-and-situated-actions/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Suchman, L. A. (1987). Plans and situated actions: The problem of human-machine communication. Cambridge university press.</li>
<li>Suchman, L., & Suchman, L. A. (2007). Human-machine reconfigurations: Plans and situated actions. Cambridge university press.</li>
</ul>
Robert Cialdini’s 6 Universal Types of Influence2011-05-17T17:36:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/robert-cialdini-6-universal-types-of-influence/<p>The human mind is an intriguing thing, capable of the most complex thought processes and ideas. Yet the brain is on automatic pilot for many situations. That allows the conscious mind to focus on other tasks. One potential drawback is that it is possible take advantage of our conscious inattention.</p>
<p>Professor Robert Cialdini’s <a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/Influence-Psychology-Persuasion-Robert-Cialdini/dp/006124189X" title="Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion">Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion</a>, the classic book on persuasion, explains the psychology of why people say “yes” and how to apply these understandings. Cialdini’s six “weapons of influence” are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Reciprocation</strong> – Reciprocation is the idea that by giving something to someone for free, they will feel obligated to return the favour. This makes them react more favourably to your requests, compelling them into an action they might otherwise ignore. Cialdini often uses the example of Ethiopia providing thousands of dollars in humanitarian aid to Mexico just after the 1985 earthquake, despite Ethiopia suffering from a crippling famine and civil war at the time. Ethiopia had been reciprocating for the diplomatic support Mexico provided when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935.</li>
<li><strong>Commitment and Consistency</strong> – People are driven to behave consistently with their past actions and statements. Once a person goes on record with a belief or opinion, it can be very difficult for them to take actions that appear to contradict their previously statements, even if the original incentive or motivation is removed. See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Wikipedia: Cognitive Dissonance">Cognitive Dissonance</a></li>
<li><strong>Social Proof</strong> – When faced with indecision, we often turn to the wisdom of the tribe. Social proof occurs when our actions mimic the actions of our peers. An example of this is when shoppers become overwhelmed or untrusting of elaborate product descriptions and turn instead to user reviews and testimonials to inform purchasing decisions. See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformity_(psychology)" title="Wikipedia: Conformity">conformity</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asch_conformity_experiments" title="Wikipedia: Asch Conformity Experiments">Asch Conformity Experiments</a>.</li>
<li><strong>Scarcity</strong> – Scarcity is making an item appear scarce in order to increase its perceived value and influence a person to pay more for it than its actually worth. It may also cause them to act impulsively, fuelled by the fear that it may be gone later.</li>
<li><strong>Liking</strong> – Whether because of familiarity, attractiveness or association, we unconsciously act much more favourably toward people we find likeable. See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness_stereotype" title="Wikipedia: Physical Attractiveness Stereotype">Physical Attractiveness Stereotype</a>.</li>
<li><strong>Authority</strong> – By placing ourselves in a subordinate position, we tend to unquestioningly obey the commands of people in authoritative positions. See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment" title="Wikipedia: Milgram Experiments">Milgram Experiments</a> of the 1960s.</li>
</ol>
<p>David Travis of <a href="http://www.userfocus.co.uk/" title="Userfocus">Userfocus</a> elaborates on Cialdini’s weapons of influence, <a href="http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2010/11/29/persuasion-triggers-in-web-design/" title="Persuasion Triggers in Web Design">applying the persuasion triggers to web design</a>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="where-to-go-next" tabindex="-1">Where to go next<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/robert-cialdini-6-universal-types-of-influence/#where-to-go-next"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Where to go next</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/content/133/mindspace-influencing-behaviour-through-public-policy" title="MINDSPACE: Influencing behaviour through public policy">MINDSPACE: Influencing Behaviour through Public Policy</a>: A series of reports and guides from a UK Government think tank on how to apply these principles to improving public policy.</li>
<li><a href="http://architectures.danlockton.co.uk/" title="Design">Design with Intent</a>: A blog by Dan Lockton, providing many examples of how designers use these kinds of technique to influence behaviour.</li>
<li><a href="http://nudges.org/" title="The Nudge blog">The Nudge blog</a>: A blog by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein that describes many examples of behaviour change based on what they call “change architecture”.</li>
</ul>
Top-down and bottom-up processing in sensation and perception2011-05-17T21:03:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/<p>There are two general processes involved in sensation and perception. <strong>Bottom-up processing</strong> refers to processing sensory information as it is coming in. In other words, if I flash a random picture on the screen, your eyes detect the features, your brain pieces it together, and you perceive the image. What you see is based only on the sensory information coming in. Bottom-up refers to how we construct the image from the smallest sensory information pieces. <strong>Top-down processing</strong>, on the other hand, refers to perception driven by cognition. Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in the blanks.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="what-is-data-driven-or-bottom-up-processing" tabindex="-1">What is data-driven or bottom-up processing?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#what-is-data-driven-or-bottom-up-processing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled What is data-driven or bottom-up processing?</span></a></h2></div>
<p>When an interpretation emerges from the data, this is called data-driven or bottom-up processing. Perception must be largely data-driven because it must accurately reflect events in the outside world. You want the interpretation of a scene to be determined mostly by information from the senses, not by your expectations.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="what-is-schema-driven-or-top-down-processing" tabindex="-1">What is schema-driven or top-down processing?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#what-is-schema-driven-or-top-down-processing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled What is schema-driven or top-down processing?</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In many situations, however, your knowledge or expectations will influence perception. This is called schema-driven or top-down processing. A schema is a pattern formed earlier in your experience.</p>
<p>Larger scale or more abstract concepts are referred to as higher level, while concrete details (such as the input from the senses) are referred to as lower level. Top-down processing occurs any time a higher-level concept influences your interpretation of lower level sensory data.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="what-is-set-or-expectancy" tabindex="-1">What is set or expectancy?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#what-is-set-or-expectancy"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled What is set or expectancy?</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Top-down processing is shown by the phenomena of <strong>set</strong> or <strong>expectancy</strong>. A classic example is the Rat Man of Bugelski and Alampay (1961).</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-rat-man.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-rat-man.png" alt="The Rat Man of Bugelski and Alampay (1961)" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: The Rat Man of Bugelski and Alampay (1961)</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Subjects saw this picture after viewing earlier slides that showed line drawings of (1) animals, or (2) faces. Depending on whether they saw animals or faces in previous slides, subjects reported seeing either (1) a rat or (2) a man wearing glasses. They had been ‘set’ for one or the other interpretation by the preceding slides. This is a form of top-down processing, in which a schema influences interpretation of the data.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-the-face.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-the-face.png" alt="The face. Your brain adds meaning what you perceive based on what it knows or expects." />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 2: The face – your brain adds meaning what you perceive based on what it knows or expects.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Above is another example of top-down processing. From a bottom-up perspective, you should see a collection of meaningless blobs and lines. However, our brain is good at detecting faces, which, from a bio-sociological perspective, is among the most important stimuli in the world.</p>
<p>In the left image, the floating blob becomes an eye, and from the eye, we construct a nose and a mouth. The picture is labelled as “face” telling your brain what it is supposed to see. But there is an alternative. Instead of a face, look at the image again, and you will see a saxophone player wearing a big hat.</p>
<p>Similarly, the right image can either be interpreted as a face looking left, or an Eskimo figure entering a dark space.</p>
<p>You may have noticed that from the beginning, but for most, being told there is another image, will alert your brain to search for the pattern.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="in-what-respect-do-cartoons-rely-upon-top-down-processing" tabindex="-1">In what respect do cartoons rely upon top-down processing?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#in-what-respect-do-cartoons-rely-upon-top-down-processing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled In what respect do cartoons rely upon top-down processing?</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Comics and cartoons provide many examples of top-down processing. Simple cues are used to suggest complex feelings and emotions. Cartoonists have a set of conventions for conveying information about mental and physical states. Tiny popping bubbles, for example, show drunkenness. Movement is shown by lines and little puffs of dust trailing after shoes. Spoken language is shown inside a bubble made out of a continuous line. A silent thought is shown inside a broken line. A sudden idea may be shown as a light bulb lighting up over a character’s head. Beads of sweat flying off a character show anxiety or physical exertion. After one gains some experience reading comics, these cues are processed automatically; one is hardly aware of them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="in-what-sense-do-we-go-beyond-the-information-given" tabindex="-1">In what sense do we go “beyond the information given”?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#in-what-sense-do-we-go-beyond-the-information-given"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled In what sense do we go “beyond the information given”?</span></a></h3></div>
<p>In general, top-down processing—information processing based on previous knowledge or schemata—allows us to make inferences: to ‘perceive’ or ‘know’ more than is contained in the data. Little cartoon droplets do not contain the information that a character is working hard. We add that information based upon our previous experience and knowledge of the conventions of cartooning.</p>
<p>Jerome Bruner titled a book about cognitive development Beyond the Information Given (1972) He was acknowledging the pivotal role of inference in cognition. We go ‘beyond the information given’ constantly in our mental processes. We learn to add assumptions and supplemental information derived from past experience to the evidence of our senses, and that is how we make sense of our world</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="top-down-and-bottom-up-processing" tabindex="-1">Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#top-down-and-bottom-up-processing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Typically sensory input is considered ‘down’, and higher cognitive processes, which have more information from other sources, are considered up. A <strong>bottom-up</strong> process is characterised by an absence of higher-level direction in sensory processing, whereas a <strong>top-down</strong> process is characterised by a high level of direction of sensory processing by more cognition, such as goals or targets.</p>
<p>Cognitively speaking, certain cognitive processes, such as fast reactions or quick visual identification, are considered bottom-up processes because they rely primarily on sensory information, whereas processes such as motor control and directed attention are considered top-down because they are goal directed.</p>
<p>The study of visual attention provides an example. If your attention is drawn to a flower in a field, it may be because the colour or shape of the flower is visually salient. The information that caused you to attend to the flower came to you in a bottom-up fashion – your attention was not contingent upon knowledge of the flower; the outside stimulus was sufficient on its own.</p>
<p>Contrast this situation with one in which you are looking for a flower. You have a representation of what you are looking for. When you see the object you are looking for, it is salient. This is an example of the use of top-down information.</p>
<p>In cognitive terms, two thinking approaches are distinguished. <strong>Top-down</strong> (or ‘big chunk’) is stereotypically the visionary, or the person who sees the larger picture and overview. Such people focus on the big picture and from that derive the details to support it. <strong>Bottom-up</strong> (or ‘small chunk’) cognition is akin to focusing on the detail primarily, rather than the landscape. The expression “seeing the wood for the trees” references the two styles of cognition.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-the-cat.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-the-cat.png" alt="The cat" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 3: An example of top down processing: Even though the second letter in each word is ambiguous, top down processing allows for easy disambiguation based on the context.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="some-other-interesting-examples" tabindex="-1">Some other interesting examples<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#some-other-interesting-examples"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Some other interesting examples</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-ebbinghaus-illusion.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-ebbinghaus-illusion.png" alt="Top-down processing: The Ebbinghaus illusion" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 4: Ebbinghaus illusion</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Perceptual comparisons typically produce contrast effects. The Ebbinghaus illusion, shown above, is a good example of a perceptual contrast effect. The centre circle is exactly the same size in Groups 1, 2 and 3, but it looks larger in Group 1 than in Group 2 because the circles that surround it are small in Group 1 and large in Group 2.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-simultaneous-contrast-effect.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/top-down-processing-simultaneous-contrast-effect.png" alt="Top-down processing: The simultaneous contrast effect" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 5: Simultaneous contrast effect</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In the simultaneous contrast effect, the centre square appears lighter in Group 2 than in Group 3, because the difference again is larger in Group 2 than in Group 3.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/top-down-and-bottom-up-processing/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://practicalpie.com/bottom-up-processing/">Bottom-up processing</a></li>
<li><a href="https://practicalpie.com/top-down-processing/">Top-down processing</a></li>
</ul>
43 things customers think are fun2011-06-30T11:30:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/43-things-customers-think-are-fun/<p>We’ve all played games as children. Today, millions of people ‘lose’ themselves in massively multiplayer games (MMPG) like <a href="http://www.battle.net/wow" title="World of Warcraft">World of Warcraft</a>, strategy games like <a href="http://www.leagueoflegends.com/" title="League of Legends">League of Legends</a> and social media games like <a href="http://www.farmville.com/" title="Zynga's FarmVille">FarmVille</a>. Games satisfy our need to interact, compete, and exercise our imagination. And they’re fun.</p>
<p>What if a business offered those rewards to their customers?</p>
<p>In his book <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Game-Energize-Business-Social-Media/dp/0470936266/" title="Game On: Energize Your Business with Social Media Games by Jon Radoff">Game On: Energize Your Business with Social Media Games</a>, Jon Radoff identifies 43 things that customers think are fun.</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Recognising patterns</strong> – Anything from visual patterns, motion patterns, strategic patterns or mathematical patterns.</li>
<li><strong>Collecting</strong> – Collections communicate status, suggest organisation, lead to rewards, represent wealth and are mementos.</li>
<li><strong>Finding random treasures</strong> – Like winning a jackpot or slot machine, finding shells at the beach or opening Cracker Jacks to find a surprise.</li>
<li><strong>Achieving a sense of completion</strong> – Giving players a constant sense of finishing something like progress bars, to-do lists, achievements and levels.</li>
<li><strong>Gaining recognition for achievements</strong> – Achievement systems provide a sense of accomplishment and a chance to be recognised.</li>
<li><strong>Creating order out of chaos</strong> – Sorting, lining things up and classifying give players a sense of control over their environment.</li>
<li><strong>Customising virtual worlds</strong> – People enjoy leaving their mark and place great value on things they’ve made.</li>
<li><strong>Gathering knowledge</strong> – Studying and being taught are not fun, but learning is fun because we are naturally curious.</li>
<li><strong>Organising groups of people</strong> – Organising groups of people to achieve shared goals is a source of enjoyment.</li>
<li><strong>Noting insider references</strong> – Discovering “Easter Eggs” gives player a sense of being a part of the “in crowd.”</li>
<li><strong>Being the centre of attention</strong> – Satisfy the human need for attention by putting the player at the centre of the universe.</li>
<li><strong>Experiencing beauty and culture</strong> – Games feature artwork, music and designs that appeal to the human senses.</li>
<li><strong>Romance</strong> – Games can provide opportunities for flirting, wooing and building relationships with the opposite sex.</li>
<li><strong>Exchanging gifts</strong> – Players enjoy giving gifts to their friends and the act of giving triggers reciprocity.</li>
<li><strong>Being a hero</strong> – Playing as the hero appeals to the human desire for power.</li>
<li><strong>Being a villain</strong> – It’s about the fantasy of having power without consequences.</li>
<li><strong>Being a wise old man</strong> – This is typically a high status role that may also touch on the motivator of family.</li>
<li><strong>Being a rebel</strong> – The opportunity to flaunt society’s rules while remaining basically good.</li>
<li><strong>Being the magician, a keeper of secret knowledge</strong> – People enjoy the thought of knowing something that nobody else knows.</li>
<li><strong>Being the ruler</strong> – The chance to be a person with considerable power over other people.</li>
<li><strong>Pretending to live in a magical place</strong> – Players enjoy imaging being in worlds different than their own.</li>
<li><strong>Listening to a story</strong> – Stories appeal to our curiosity about people, places and things.</li>
<li><strong>Telling stories</strong> – Games provide an opportunity for players to construct and tell their own unique stories.</li>
<li><strong>Predicting the future</strong> – Predicting the future makes people feel smart, in-control and influential.</li>
<li><strong>Competition</strong> – People enjoy the sense of power that comes from winning.</li>
<li><strong>Psychoanalysing</strong> – Predicting, guessing or understanding the motivations of others can be a source of fun.</li>
<li><strong>Mystery</strong> – Striking a balance between revealing a little while holding back the rest can create a fun experience.</li>
<li><strong>Mastering a skill</strong> – Increasing one’s mastery without becoming frustrated gives people a sense of flow.</li>
<li><strong>Exacting justice and revenge</strong> – Justice and revenge provide a sense of idealism and tranquility when wrongs are righted.</li>
<li><strong>Nurturing</strong> – Growing things stems from your motivations for family, saving and power.</li>
<li><strong>Excitement</strong> – Suspense, horror, competitive action and anticipation help create an addictive, exciting experience.</li>
<li><strong>Triumph over conflict</strong> – Resolving conflict provides the player with a sense of victory.</li>
<li><strong>Relaxing</strong> – Games can create a mental vacation which can lead to tranquility.</li>
<li><strong>Experiencing the freakish or bizarre</strong> – People crave new and unique experiences that are different from their everyday lives.</li>
<li><strong>Being silly</strong> – Players enjoy an escape from the serious and mundane.</li>
<li><strong>Laughing</strong> – People love to laugh, especially with their friends.</li>
<li><strong>Being scared</strong> – People enjoy the sensation of danger without the actual danger.</li>
<li><strong>Strengthening a family relationship</strong> – Players enjoy feeling companionship with members of their family.</li>
<li><strong>Improving one’s health</strong> – People dislike exercise, but love to feel fit.</li>
<li><strong>Imagining a connection with the past</strong> – Nostalgia is a powerful emotional trigger for good and bad emotions.</li>
<li><strong>Exploring a world</strong> – Understanding your environment gives you a sense of power and control.</li>
<li><strong>Improving society</strong> – Players can satisfy their need to leave the world a better place than when they came into it.</li>
<li><strong>Enlightenment</strong> – Games provide a way for players to explore decisions and their consequences, leading to greater knowledge.</li>
</ol>
<p>Adapted from the book <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Game-Energize-Business-Social-Media/dp/0470936266/" title="Game On: Energize Your Business with Social Media Games by Jon Radoff">Game On: Energize Your Business with Social Media Games</a> by Jon Radoff (pages 108-124)</p>
Game Dynamics, or Gamification to you and me2011-06-30T11:30:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/game-dynamics-gamification/<p>In behavioural economics, gamification is the use of game dynamics for non-game applications, particularly consumer-oriented web and mobile sites, in order to encourage people to adopt the applications. It also strives to encourage users to engage in desired behaviours in connection with the applications.</p>
<p>Gamification works by making technology more engaging, encouraging desired behaviours and by taking advantage of humans’ psychological predisposition to engage in gaming. The technique can encourage people to perform chores that they ordinarily consider boring, such as completing surveys, shopping or reading web sites.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Game Dynamics are constructs of rules and feedback loops intended to produce enjoyable game-play. They are the building blocks that can be applied and combined to gamify any non-game context.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Early examples of gamification are based on rewarding points to people who share experiences on location-based platforms such as <a href="https://facebook.com/" title="Facebook">Facebook’s</a> “Place” feature, <a href="https://foursquare.com/" title="Foursquare">Foursquare</a> and <a href="https://gowalla.com/" title="Gowalla">Gowalla</a>.</p>
<p>Gamification is used by marketers and website product managers as a tool for customer engagement and encouraging desirable website usage behaviour. Gamification is readily applicable to increasing engagement on sites built on social network services. One site, <a href="https://www.devhub.com/" title="DevHub">DevHub</a>, increased the number of users who completed their online tasks from 10% to 80% after adding gamification elements.</p>
<p>Below are listed 47 game dynamics. The challenge comes from taking these mechanics and employing them in a website setting. If you have some good examples, please feel free to post a comment.</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><strong>Achievement</strong> – A virtual or physical representation of having accomplished something. Achievements can be easy, difficult, surprising and funny and can be accomplished alone or as a group. Achievements are often viewed as rewards in and of themselves.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> A badge (Foursquare, Gowalla and Booyah), a level (Tiny Wings and Angry Birds), a reward (Fruit Ninja), points (Doodle Jump and Pac-Man), really anything defined as a reward can be a reward.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Appointment Dynamic</strong> – A dynamic in which to succeed, one must return at a predefined time to take some action. Appointment dynamics are often deeply related to interval based reward schedules or avoidance dynamics.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Cafe World and Farmville where if you return at a set time to do something you get something good, and if you don’t something bad happens.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Avoidance</strong> – The act of inducing player behaviour not by giving a reward, but by not instituting a punishment. Produces consistent level of activity, timed around the schedule.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Press a lever every 30 seconds to not get shocked.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Behavioural Contrast</strong> – The theory defining how behaviour can shift greatly based on changed expectations.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> A monkey presses a lever and is given lettuce. The monkey is happy and continues to press the lever. Then it gets a grape one time. The monkey is delighted. The next time it presses the lever it gets lettuce again. Rather than being happy, as it was before, it goes ballistic throwing the lettuce at the experimenter. (In some experiments, a second monkey is placed in the cage, but tied to a rope so it can’t access the lettuce or lever. After the grape reward is removed, the first monkey beats up the second monkey even though it obviously had nothing to do with the removal. The anger is truly irrational.)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Behavioural Momentum</strong> – The tendency of players to keep doing what they have been doing.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> From <a href="http://www.g4tv.com/videos/44277/dice-2010-design-outside-the-box-presentation/" title="Jesse Schell's DICE talk - When games invade real life">Jesse Schell’s DICE 2010 talk</a>: “I have spent ten hours playing Farmville. I am a smart person and wouldn’t spend 10 hours on something unless it was useful. Therefore this must be useful, so I can keep doing it.”</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Blissful Productivity</strong> – The idea that playing in a game makes you happier working hard, than you would be relaxing. Essentially, we’re optimised as human beings by working hard, and doing meaningful and rewarding work.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> From <a href="http://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world.html" title="Jane McGonigal's TED Talk - Gaming can make a better world">Jane McGonigal’s TED Talk</a> wherein she discusses how World of Warcraft players play on average 22 hours per week (a part time job), often after a full days work. They’re willing to work hard, perhaps harder than in real life, because of their blissful productivity in the game world.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Cascading Information Theory</strong> (also known as Progressive Disclosure on the Web) – The theory that information should be released in the minimum possible snippets to gain the appropriate level of understanding at each point during a game narrative.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Showing basic actions first, unlocking more as you progress through levels. Making building on SCVNGR a simple but staged process to avoid information overload.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Chain Schedules</strong> – the practice of linking a reward to a series of contingencies. Players tend to treat these as simply the individual contingencies. Unlocking one step in the contingency is often viewed as an individual reward by the player.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Kill 10 orcs to get into the dragons cave, every 30 minutes the dragon appears.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Communal Discovery</strong> – The game dynamic wherein an entire community is rallied to work together to solve a riddle, a problem or a challenge. Immensely viral and very fun.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> <a href="https://networkchallenge.darpa.mil/" title="DARPA Network Challenge">DARPA Network Challenge</a>; a competition that explores the roles the Internet and social networking play in the timely communication, wide-area team-building, and urgent mobilisation. The cottage industries that appear around McDonald’s monopoly to find “Boardwalk”.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Companion Gaming</strong> – Games that can be played across multiple platforms.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Games that be played on iPhone, Facebook, XBox with completely seamless cross platform game-play.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Contingency</strong> – The problem that the player must overcome in the three part paradigm of reward schedules.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> 10 orcs block your path</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Countdown</strong> – The dynamic in which players are only given a certain amount of time to do something. This will create an activity graph that causes increased initial activity increasing frenetically until time runs out, which is a forced extinction.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Bejewelled Blitz with 30 seconds to get as many points as you can. Bonus rounds. Timed levels</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Cross Situational Leader-boards</strong> – This occurs when one ranking mechanism is applied across multiple (unequal and isolated) gaming scenarios. Players often perceive that these ranking scenarios are unfair as not all players were presented with an “equal” opportunity to win.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Players are arbitrarily sent into one of three paths. The winner is determined by the top scorer overall (i.e. across the paths). Since the players can only do one path (and can’t pick), they will perceive inequity in the game scenario and get upset.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Disincentives</strong> – a game element that uses a penalty (or altered situation) to induce behavioural shift.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> losing health points, amazon’s checkout line removing all links to tunnel the buyer to purchase, speeding traps.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Endless Games</strong> – Games that do not have an explicit end. Most applicable to casual games that can refresh their content or games where a static (but positive) state is a reward of its own.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Farmville (static state is its own victory), SCVNGR (challenges constantly are being built by the community to refresh content).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Envy</strong> – The desire to have what others have. In order for this to be effective seeing what other people have (voyeurism) must be employed.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> My friend has this item and I want it!</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Epic Meaning</strong> – players will be highly motivated if they believe they are working to achieve something great, something awe-inspiring, something bigger than themselves.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> From <a href="http://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world.html" title="Jane McGonigal's TED Talk - Gaming can make a better world">Jane McGonigal’s TED Talk</a> where she discusses World of Warcraft’s ongoing story line and “epic meaning” that involves each individual has motivated players to participate outside the game and create the second largest wiki in the world to help them achieve their individual quests and collectively their epic meanings.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Extinction</strong> – Extinction is the term used to refer to the action of stopping providing a reward. This tends to create anger in players as they feel betrayed by no longer receiving the reward they have come to expect. It generally induces negative behavioural momentum.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Killing 10 orcs no longer gets you a level up.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Fixed Interval Reward Schedules</strong> – Fixed interval schedules provide a reward after a fixed amount of time, say 30 minutes. This tends to create a low engagement after a reward, and then gradually increasing activity until a reward is given, followed by another lull in engagement.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Farmville, wait 30 minutes, crops have appeared.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Fixed Ratio Reward Schedules</strong> – A fixed ratio schedule provides rewards after a fixed number of actions. This creates cyclical nadirs of engagement (because the first action will not create any reward so incentive is low) and then bursts of activity as the reward gets closer and closer.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Kill 20 ships, get a level up, visit five locations, get a badge.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Free Lunch</strong> – A dynamic in which a player feels that they are getting something for free due to someone else having done work. It’s critical that work is perceived to have been done (just not by the player in question) to avoid breaching trust in the scenario. The player must feel that they’ve “lucked” into something.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Groupon. By virtue of 100 other people having bought the deal, you get it cheaply. There is no sketchiness because you recognise work has been done (100 people are spending money) but you yourself didn’t have to do it.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Fun Once, Fun Always</strong> – The concept that an action in enjoyable to repeat all the time. Generally this has to do with simple actions. There is often also a limitation to the total level of enjoyment of the action.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> the theory behind the check-in everywhere and the check-in and the default challenges on SCVNGR.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Interval Reward Schedules</strong> – Interval based reward schedules provide a reward after a certain amount of time. There are two flavours: variable and fixed.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Wait n minutes, collect rent.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Lottery</strong> – A game dynamic in which the winner is determined solely by chance. This creates a high level of anticipation. The fairness is often suspect, however winners will generally continue to play indefinitely while losers will quickly abandon the game, despite the random nature of the distinction between the two.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Many forms of gambling, scratch tickets.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Loyalty</strong> – The concept of feeling a positive sustained connection to an entity leading to a feeling of partial ownership. Often reinforced with a visual representation.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Fealty in World of Warcraft, achieving status at physical places (mayorship, being on the wall of favourite customers).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Meta Game</strong> – a game which exists layered within another game. These generally are discovered rather than explained (lest they cause confusion) and tend to appeal to ~2% of the total game-playing audience. They are dangerous as they can induce confusion (if made too overt) but are powerful as they’re greatly satisfying to those who find them.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> hidden questions / achievements within World of Warcraft that require you to do special (and hard to discover) activities as you go through other quests.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Micro Leader-boards</strong> – The rankings of all individuals in a micro-set. Often great for distributed game dynamics where you want many micro-competitions or desire to induce loyalty.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Be the top scorers at Joe’s bar this week and get a free appetiser.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Modifiers</strong> – An item that when used affects other actions. Generally modifiers are earned after having completed a series of challenges or core functions.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> A x2 modifier that doubles the points on the next action you take.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Moral Hazard of Game Play</strong> – The risk that by rewarding people manipulatively in a game you remove the actual moral value of the action and replace it with an ersatz game-based reward. The risk that by providing too many incentives to take an action, the incentive of actually enjoying the action taken is lost. The corollary to this is that if the points or rewards are taken away, then the person loses all motivation to take the (initially fun on its own) action.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Paraphrased from Jesse Schell “If I give you points every time you brush your teeth, you’ll stop brushing your teeth because it’s good for you and then only do it for the points. If the points stop flowing, your teeth will decay.”</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Ownership</strong> – The act of controlling something, having it be <em>your</em> property.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Ownership is interesting on a number of levels, from taking over places, to controlling a slot, to simply owning popularity by having a digital representation of many friends.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Pride</strong> – the feeling of ownership and joy at an accomplishment.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> I have ten badges. I own them. They are mine. There are many like them, but these are mine. Hooray.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Privacy</strong> – The concept that certain information is private, not for public distribution. This can be a demotivator (I won’t take an action because I don’t want to share this) or a motivator (by sharing this I reinforce my own actions).</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Scales the publish your daily weight onto Twitter (these are real and are proven positive motivator for staying on your diet). Or having your location publicly broadcast anytime you do anything (which is invasive and can should be avoided).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Progression</strong> – A dynamic in which success is granularly displayed and measured through the process of completing itemised tasks.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> LinkedIn uses a progress bar to motivate you to complete your user profile, whilst Mendeley combines the progress bar with a statement suggesting what content needs to be completed: “Fill out your research profile to increase your impact in the Mendeley network and to enable your colleagues to find you.” Levelling up from Paladin level 1 to Paladin level 60.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Ratio Reward Schedules</strong> – Ratio schedules provide a reward after a number of actions. There are two flavours: variable and fixed.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Kill 10 orcs, get a power up.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Real-time vs. Delayed Mechanics</strong> – Realtime information flow is uninhibited by delay. Delayed information is only released after a certain interval.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Realtime scores cause instant reaction (gratification or demotivation). Delayed information causes ambiguity which can incentivise more action due to the lack of certainty of ranking.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Reinforcer</strong> – The reward given if the expected action is carried out in the three part paradigm of reward schedules.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Receiving a level up after killing 10 orcs.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Response</strong> – The expected action from the player in the three part paradigm of reward schedules.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> the player takes the action to kill 10 orcs.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Reward Schedules</strong> – the time-frame and delivery mechanisms through which rewards (points, prizes, level ups) are delivered. Three main parts exist in a reward schedule; contingency, response and reinforcer.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Getting a level up for killing 10 orcs, clearing a row in Tetris, getting fresh crops in Farmville</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Rolling Physical Goods</strong> – A physical good (one with real value) that can be won by anyone on an ongoing basis as long as they meet some characteristic. However, that characteristic rolls from player to player.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Top scorer deals, mayor deals.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Shell Game</strong> – a game in which the player is presented with the illusion of choice but is actually in a situation that guides them to the desired outcome of the operator.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> 3 Card Monty, lotteries, gambling.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Social Fabric of Games</strong> – the idea that people like one another better after they’ve played games with them, have a higher level of trust and a great willingness to work together.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> From <a href="http://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world.html" title="Jane McGonigal's TED Talk - Gaming can make a better world">Jane McGonigal’s TED Talk</a> where she suggests that it takes a lot of trust to play a game with someone because you need them to spend their time with you, play by the same rules, shoot for the same goals.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Status</strong> – The rank or level of a player. Players are often motivated by trying to reach a higher level or status.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> White Paladin level 20 in World of Warcraft.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Urgent Optimism</strong> – Extreme self motivation. The desire to act immediately to tackle an obstacle combined with the belief that we have a reasonable hope of success.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> From <a href="http://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world.html" title="Jane McGonigal's TED Talk - Gaming can make a better world">Jane McGonigal’s TED Talk</a>. The idea that in proper games an “epic win” or just “win” is possible and therefore always worth acting for.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Variable Interval Reward Schedules</strong> – Variable interval reward schedules provide a reward after a roughly consistent amount of time. This tends to create a reasonably high level of activity over time, as the player could receive a reward at any time but never the burst as created under a fixed schedule. This system is also more immune to the nadir right after the receiving of a reward, but also lacks the zenith of activity before a reward in unlocked due to high levels of ambiguity.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Wait roughly 30 minutes, a new weapon appears. Check back as often as you want but that won’t speed it up. Generally players are bad at realising that.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Variable Ratio Reward Schedules</strong> – A variable ratio reward schedule provides rewards after a roughly consistent but unknown amount of actions. This creates a relatively high consistent rate of activity (as there could always be a reward after the next action) with a slight increase as the expected reward threshold is reached, but never the huge burst of a fixed ratio schedule. It’s also more immune to nadirs in engagement after a reward is achieved.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Kill 20 ships, get a level up. Visit a couple locations (roughly five) get a badge</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Viral Game Mechanics</strong> – A game element that requires multiple people to play (or that can be played better with multiple people).</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Farmville making you more successful in the game if you invite your friends, the social check-in.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Virtual Items</strong> – Digital prizes, rewards, objects found or taken within the course of a game. Often these can be traded or given away.</p>
<p><em>Example:</em> Gowalla’s items, Facebook gifts, badges.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>You can read more about “Gamification” on the <a href="http://gamification.org/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Gamification Wiki">Gamification Wiki</a> or on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamification" title="Wikipedia Gamification">Wikipedia Gamification</a> page.</p>
10 principles of inclusive web design2011-07-01T16:24:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/ten-principles-of-inclusive-web-design/<p>Inclusive design is well established in architecture and industrial design and the principles that apply to these disciplines are equally relevant on the web. It’s people that your website engages with, not technologies, so a user-centred approach is fundamental.</p>
<p>Inclusive design is where innovation and imagination flourish. Meeting the needs of the widest variety of people does not inhibit creativity. It opens our minds and inspires excellence.</p>
<p>In her article in <a href="http://www.netmagazine.com/features/10-principles-inclusive-web-design" title="Sandi Wassmer's latest article in .net magazine">.net magazine</a>, <a href="https://twitter.com/sandiwassmer" title="Sandi Wassmer on Twitter">Sandi Wassmer</a> of Copious explains the ten principles for inclusive web design an overview of which is listed below:</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Equitable</strong> – Be welcoming, don’t discriminate and engage with people. Create different user experiences and make certain they have equally valuable outcomes. Aesthetics matter.</li>
<li><strong>Flexible</strong> – Provide options. Think who, how, why, what, where and when people will be using your website. Make sure there is choice for diverse users and maintain device independence.</li>
<li><strong>Straightforward</strong> – Be obvious and not ambiguous. Make sure your website’s features add value, not complexity. Remember, good design is as little design as possible.</li>
<li><strong>Perceptible</strong> – Don’t assume anything. Make sure your website’s purpose is clear, its content, structure and sequence are meaningful and convey information to all of the senses.</li>
<li><strong>Informative</strong> – Make sure people know where they are on your website and provide ways for them to find what they’re looking for. Be timely, predictable, uncomplicated and precise.</li>
<li><strong>Preventative</strong> – Provide easy to follow instructions and gently guide users in interacting with your website. Help them to minimise errors when submitting data, through well considered form design.</li>
<li><strong>Tolerant</strong> – Handle errors respectfully and indicate precisely what the error is, where it is and how to fix it. Remember to let people know the outcome.</li>
<li><strong>Effortless</strong> – Don’t make demands or place restrictions on your users. People should not have to work or think hard to find what they want on your website. Ensure it can be used efficiently and effectively.</li>
<li><strong>Accommodating</strong> – Be approachable, uncluttered and give people room to manoeuvre. Make sure that your website is unobtrusive and can be accessed by different devices of all shapes and sizes.</li>
<li><strong>Consistent</strong> – Follow standards, guidelines, conventions and best practices. Provide a familiar environment with memorable functionality.</li>
</ol>
<p>With different devices, configurations, browsers, personal settings and assistive technologies, and no agreement on how to achieve interoperability, web builders must do their best to accommodate the diverse ways people access the internet. Building with this in mind will ensure your visitors have a quality experience.</p>
<p>Inclusive design enables us to create great, meaningful, on-brand internet experiences for the widest audience possible. However, inclusive design is also a new way of thinking, and its overarching aims may not mirror those of your organisation or clients. Change takes time, so you may not be able to do everything at once. If you just start thinking about accessibility and plan your projects with users in mind, you’ll be on the right path. There will be trade-offs and tough decisions, but this is where inclusive design really comes to the fore. It challenges us to hone our craft and fosters real creativity and innovation.</p>
11 laws and principles to use in design2011-08-10T13:53:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/<p>Design elements, laws and principles, garnered over centuries of observation, describe fundamental ideas about the practice of good visual design that are assumed to be the basis of all intentional visual design strategies. These elements form the ‘vocabulary’ of the design, while the laws and principles constitute the broader structural aspects of its composition.</p>
<p>David Hume described these as “the constant and universal principles of human nature.” Awareness of the elements, laws and principles in design is the first step in creating successful visual compositions.</p>
<p>While these universal design elements, laws and principles may not always be absolutes, understanding them can help you achieve success in a multitude of fields including graphic, industrial design and experience design, architecture and fine art.</p>
<p>Products designed with appreciation for these natural principles will tend to be better received and more easily utilised by the general public. But what are some of these elements, laws and principles? Below is a list of 11 to whet your appetite.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="occams-razor" tabindex="-1">Occam’s Razor<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#occams-razor"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Occam’s Razor</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Occam’s razor (also spelled Ockham’s razor) states that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible. The principle is often expressed in Latin as the <em>lex parsimoniae</em> (law of succinctness): all things being equal, the simplest solution tends to be the best one. One consequence of this methodology is the idea that the simplest or most obvious explanation of several competing ones is the one that should be preferred until it is proven wrong.</p>
<p>But how does this relate to design? 37Signals’ book <a href="http://gettingreal.37signals.com/" title="37Signals' Getting Real">Getting Real</a> provides a good overview: deliver just what customers need and eliminate anything they don’t. Start with the interface, the real screens that people are going to use. Begin with what the customer actually experiences and builds backwards from there. This lets you get the interface right before you get the software wrong. It’s about keeping things simple, iterating the design and lowering the cost of change; it is about launching, tweaking and constantly improving.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="hicks-law" tabindex="-1">Hick’s Law<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#hicks-law"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Hick’s Law</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Hick’s Law, or the Hick–Hyman Law, describes the time it takes for a person to make a decision as a result of the possible choices he or she has. The Hick’s Law assesses cognitive information capacity in choice reaction experiments. The amount of time taken to process a certain amount of bits in the Hick’s Law is known as the rate of gain of information.</p>
<!-- Hick’s Law can be expressed with the following equation:
\[latex\]T = b \\cdot \\log\_{2}(n + 1)\[/latex\] -->
<p>This law has implications in areas such as website navigation and getting people to take action. Since the time it takes to make a decision increases as the number of alternatives increases, the more options you offer, the less likely any one of those options will be taken.</p>
<p>Hick’s Law can be visualised with the following image:</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/hicks-law.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/hicks-law.png" alt="Hick’s Law" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: Hick’s Law</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The conclusion from Hick’s law is to provide less options or present only those options that are necessary or required to complete the given task. Instead of a long list of menu options, think about how you can group them into as few high level choices as possible. Present those few options in common places like navigation and only present more options as someone digs deeper into one level of categorisation. 6 – 8 main navigational links is a general guide.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="fitts-law" tabindex="-1">Fitts’ Law<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#fitts-law"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Fitts’ Law</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Fitts’ Law is a model of human movement in human–computer interaction and ergonomics, which states that the speed and accuracy with which a user can select an on-screen object depends on the size of the object and how far the user has to move the pointer. Fitts’ Law is used to model the act of pointing, either by physically touching an object with a hand or finger, or virtually, by pointing to an object on a computer monitor using a pointing device.</p>
<p>Fitts’ Law can be visualised with the following image:</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/fitts-law.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/fitts-law.png" alt="Fitts’ Law" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 2: Fitts’ Law</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<!-- Fitts’ Law is expressed with the following equation:
\[latex\]T = a + b \\log\_2 \\Bigg(1+\\frac{D}{W}\\Bigg)\[/latex\]
_Where: T = Time, a = start/stop time, b = speed of device, D = distance, and W = width of target, or allowable error of tolerance._ -->
<p>Fitts’ Law has implications for designers: features that require user interaction (e.g., links and buttons) should be as large as practically possible given display constraints and that frequently used features should be grouped near one another to minimise the distance that the user has to move the cursor to activate them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="gestalt" tabindex="-1">Gestalt<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#gestalt"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Gestalt</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Gestalt psychology is a theory of mind and brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analogue, with self-organising tendencies.</p>
<p>The Gestalt effect is the form-generating capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of just a collection of simple lines and curves.</p>
<p>The key principles of Gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multi-stability and invariance.</p>
<ul>
<li><em>Emergence</em> – the process of complex pattern formation from simpler rules.</li>
<li><em>Reification</em> – the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.</li>
<li><em>Multi-stability</em> – the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations.</li>
<li><em>Invariance</em> – the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognised independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="prgnanz" tabindex="-1">Prägnanz<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#prgnanz"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Prägnanz</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Prägnanz is the fundamental principle of perceptual segregation proposed by Gestalt psychologists. It states that during visual perception, the best, simplest and most stable shape of any possibilities will be perceived.</p>
<p>Prägnanz is defined by six laws:</p>
<ol>
<li><em>Law of Closure</em> – the mind may experience elements it does not perceive through sensation, in order to complete a regular figure (that is, to increase regularity).</li>
<li><em>Law of Similarity</em> – the mind groups similar elements into collective entities or totalities. These similarities may depend upon relationships of form, colour, size or brightness.</li>
<li><em>Law of Proximity</em> – spatial or temporal grouping of elements may induce the mind to perceive a collective or totality.</li>
<li><em>Law of Symmetry</em> (figure ground relationships) – symmetrical images are perceived collectively, even in spite of distance.</li>
<li><em>Law of Continuity</em> – the mind continues visual, auditory and kinetic patterns.</li>
<li><em>Law of Common Fate</em> – elements with the same moving direction are perceived as a collective or unit.</li>
</ol>
<p>These laws can and should be used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="millers-law" tabindex="-1">Miller’s Law<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#millers-law"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Miller’s Law</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Miller’s Law is based upon theories of communication. The law instructs us to suspend judgment about what someone is saying so we can first understand them without imbuing their message with our own personal interpretations.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-magical-number-7-2" tabindex="-1">The Magical Number 7 ± 2<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#the-magical-number-7-2"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The Magical Number 7 ± 2</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This law, also known as Miller’s Law, argues that the number of objects, or chunks, an average human can hold in working memory is 7±2. Later research on short-term memory and working memory revealed that memory span is not a constant even when measured in terms of a number of chunks. The number of chunks a human can recall immediately after presentation depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., memory span is around seven for digits, around six for letters, and around five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, memory span is lower for long words than it is for short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) strongly depends on the time it takes to speak the contents aloud.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="fibonacci-sequence" tabindex="-1">Fibonacci Sequence<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#fibonacci-sequence"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Fibonacci Sequence</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Fibonacci Sequence is a list of numbers is created by repeatedly adding the sums of the last two digits. It begins with 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144 and so on. What is fascinating is that this sequence appears repeatedly in nature, in tree branches, leaves on stems, in a wide variety of plants and the reproduction pattern of honeybees.</p>
<!-- The Fibonacci sequence can be described as the function:
\[latex\]F(n) = (a^n – b^n)/(a – b)\[/latex\]
This is not the easiest function to punch out on your calculator but the concept is simple enough. You can easily determine the next or previous number in the sequence with a little old fashioned glance at the Fibonacci string. -->
<p>The Fibonacci Sequence is often visualised in design with the following diagram:</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/fibonacci-blocks.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/fibonacci-blocks.png" alt="Fibonacci blocks" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 3: Fibonacci blocks</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The Fibonacci Sequence is closely related to the Golden Ratio.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="golden-ratio" tabindex="-1">Golden Ratio<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#golden-ratio"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Golden Ratio</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Golden Ratio is a term used in both mathematics and art. Two quantities are said to be in the golden ratio if the ratio of the sum of the quantities to the larger quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one. The golden ratio is an irrational mathematical constant, approximately 1.6180339887. Other names frequently used for the golden ratio are the golden section and the golden mean.</p>
<p>The following figure can be used to express the geometric relationship that defines the constant:</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/golden-ratio.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/golden-ratio.png" alt="Golden Ratio" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 4: Golden Ratio</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<!-- But for those of you who are mathematically inclined, this is the ratio expressed algebraically:
\[latex\]\\frac{a+b}{a} = \\frac{a}{b} \\equiv \\varphi\\,.\[/latex\] -->
<p>The Golden Ratio describes the most aesthetically pleasing proportionate shapes and designs. A Fibonacci spiral, created by drawing circular arcs connecting the opposite corners of squares in the Fibonacci tiling (this one uses squares of sizes 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and 34), can be used to plan your design.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/fibonacci-spiral.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/fibonacci-spiral.png" alt="Fibonacci spiral" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 5: Fibonacci spiral</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>As a designer, you can use this ratio to place the elements on your pages to create mini golden ratio rectangles, which will be pleasing to the eye. It can be used for captions, text flowing beside images, advertising space and navigation buttons and menus. It is worth bearing this ratio in mind when creating rectangles for your pages.</p>
<p>You can read more about the <a href="http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2008/05/29/applying-divine-proportion-to-web-design/" title="Applying the Devine Proportion to Web Design - Golden Ratio">Golden Ratio</a> on the Smashing Magazine website.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="rule-of-thirds" tabindex="-1">Rule of Thirds<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#rule-of-thirds"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Rule of Thirds</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Rule of Thirds is a compositional rule of thumb in visual arts such as painting, photography and design. The rule states that an image should be imagined as divided into nine equal parts by two equally-spaced horizontal lines and two equally-spaced vertical lines, and that important compositional elements should be placed along these lines or the four intersections. Proponents of the technique claim that aligning a subject with these points creates more tension, energy and interest in the composition than simply centring the subject would.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/rule-of-thirds.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/rule-of-thirds.png" alt="Rule of thirds" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 6: Rule of thirds</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>In most cases it is neither possible nor useful to use all four points to highlight the most important functions or navigation options in a design. However, you can use some of them (usually one or two) to properly place the most important message or functionality of the site. The left upper corner is usually the strongest one, since users scan web-sites according to the F-shape.</p>
<p>You can read more about the <a href="http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2008/05/29/applying-divine-proportion-to-web-design/" title="Applying the Devine Proportion to Web Design - Rule of Thirds">Rule of Thirds</a> on the Smashing Magazine website.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="pareto-principle" tabindex="-1">Pareto Principle<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/#pareto-principle"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Pareto Principle</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Pareto Principle, also known as the “80-20 rule” and the “Law of the Vital Few”, states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/80-20-rule.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/11-laws-and-principles-to-use-in-design/80-20-rule.png" alt="The Pareto Principle (80/20 rule)" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 7: The Pareto Principle (80/20 rule)</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Use the 80-20 rule to focus your resources in order to realise greater results. Identify what 20 percent of a products features are used 80 percent of the time and concentrate design and testing efforts on those resources. Or identify what critical 20 percent of a product’s features are responsible for 80 percent of the revenue and concentrate on that.</p>
<p>The 80-20 rule can help you decide what to redesign, what parts of a product or your time to downplay, what to throw away, or where to invest your scarce resources. It can help you resist efforts to correct and optimise designs beyond the critical 20 percent as more would yield diminishing returns.</p>
You’re being gamed2011-08-15T15:25:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/<p>You, like many people, aren’t stupid, but it’s an unfortunate fact of life that you can be fooled. Since the dawn of time, the best salespeople, rightly or wrongly, have been known to exploit vulnerabilities and weaknesses of the human mind to their own gain.</p>
<p>The thriving field of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Wikipedia: Behavioural Economics">behavioural economics</a> has begun to codify these mental weaknesses in terms of social, cognitive and emotional factors. Drawing from the insights of psychology, behavioural economists (such as Dan Ariely, Robert Cialdini, Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons) have explained why we buy more things at 99p rather than £1 (the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_pricing" title="Wikipedia: Psychological Pricing - left-digit effect">left-digit effect</a>), why we commit to memberships of clubs and other organisations that we’ll never use or attend (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Wikipedia: Optimism Bias">optimism bias</a>), why we attribute more value to things we own than things we do not (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endowment_effect" title="Wikipedia: Endowment Effect">endowment effect</a>) and why we don’t return purchases nearly as often as we perhaps should (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-purchase_rationalization" title="Wikipedia: Post-purchase Rationalisation">post-purchase rationalisation</a>).</p>
<p>Knowledge of human behaviour is now being used by the giants of the web, from Amazon and Apple to Groupon and Zynga, to keep us coming back to their websites, playing their games and buying their products and services.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="amazon" tabindex="-1">Amazon<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#amazon"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Amazon</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Amazon has mastered eliminating small frictions, which in turn radically alters decisions and behaviour. For millions of people, Amazon is the default purchasing solution because it has all our credit card and address details on file. Amazon has removed the pain of retyping these details each time we make a purchase. This may not sound like much since many other websites also allow us to save our details, but during the few seconds in which we make our buying decisions, when we are not thinking very deeply, the barrier to entering that data seems too forbidding and we default to Amazon.</p>
<p>That’s not the only friction that Amazon has eliminated, they’ve created smart solutions to the problem of shipping, which has always been one of the biggest psychological hurdles to buying online. The first is Super Saver delivery, which is free in the UK if dispatching to UK locations. This option often tempts customers to add an extra item to their order.</p>
<p>The second, more interesting shipping mechanism is Amazon Prime. For an upfront fee of £49 per year, you get free next-day delivery on the majority of items. Knowing that one shop has free shipping compared to another, makes us less likely to shop elsewhere and because the barrier of shipping is removed, we’re more likely to impulse buy. Furthermore, because investment in shipping is essentially made upfront, we try to offset the investment by purchasing more.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="apple" tabindex="-1">Apple<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#apple"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Apple</span></a></h2></div>
<p>If, like millions of other people, you’re an Apple customer, you may have noticed that email receipts for your purchases don’t arrive immediately after you’ve made the purchase. Whilst the delay could be related to Apple batch-processing transactions, there is an important psychological benefit to the company: the delay reduces the pain of paying and hence the potential for customers to request refunds.</p>
<p>The mechanism of the transaction remains the same, money is still debited from your credit card, but by not receiving a receipt immediately, the payment is decoupled from consumption and the pain of paying, however small the value may be.</p>
<p>It’s not all bad news for the consumer. Apple made the mistake of allowing apps to sell too cheaply or even for free through the AppStore. There’s an economic phenomenon called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring" title="Wikipedia: Cognitive Bias of Anchoring">anchoring</a>, which occurs when people overly rely on a specific piece of information to govern their thought-process. Once the anchor is set, there is a bias toward adjusting or interpreting other information to reflect the “anchored” information. Once a price point is set, it’s extremely difficult to displace the anchor. iPhone and iPad apps take many hours of work to design and build, but on the AppStore, the expectation now is that they can’t cost more than £4.99, whilst most should cost £0.69. The pull of free is just too strong—dragging down what people will pay for everything else.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="facebook" tabindex="-1">Facebook<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#facebook"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Facebook</span></a></h2></div>
<p>What has become increasingly clear is that the Facebook actively develops features that challenge our limited ability for self-control, since that is what will get us to come back again and again.</p>
<p>Much of Facebook’s genius revolves around the Wall: a public space that we curate but that other people can add to. Within the universe of the site, where everyone is a “friend”, you feel compelled to respond to Wall posts, to comment on others’ posts to yours and to reciprocate by writing on theirs.</p>
<p>We want our Walls to reflect ourselves or certain persona. It’s analogous to the way we curate our belongings, which itself is a window into our personalities.</p>
<p>The psychologist <a href="http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/gosling/" title="Sam Gosling">Sam Gosling</a> has shown you can learn more about people from their possessions than from spending time with them. Walls are basically the same—a storefront window to the self.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="groupon" tabindex="-1">Groupon<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#groupon"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Groupon</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Groupon has not just revolutionised social-buying websites through offering remarkable discounts, but more importantly by removing the embarrassment of coupon shopping.</p>
<p>The stigma of coupon use is real and broad-based. A <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/591102" title="Journal of Consumer Research - Stigma by Association in Coupon Redemption: Looking Cheap because of Others">2008 paper in the Journal of Consumer Research</a> found that shoppers would describe people standing near coupon users, not to mention the coupon users themselves, as “cheap” or “poor”. With Groupon, by contrast, the social acceptability is baked into the premise – into the name, even. The perception of crowd behaviour can be a powerful motivator when it comes to modifying people’s behaviour.</p>
<p>Groupon also uses time constraints to further influence behaviour. Consumers have one day to decide whether to buy a coupon. Usually, when we don’t buy something, we have the opportunity to go back and buy it later. But with Groupon, our choice becomes explicit. If we don’t buy the coupon now, we’ll never be able to buy it. Presented with that choice, many customers will consider how much they might regret the choice not to buy. And because people hate feeling regret, they become more inclined to buy it now. Amazon do a similar think by alerting the buyer to the fact that there are only n-number of items left, whilst “bricks and mortar” stores such as Zara regularly update their clothes range to drive demand.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="lovefilm" tabindex="-1">Lovefilm<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#lovefilm"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Lovefilm</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Lovefilm’s business model is based upon the simple premise: people hate late fees. With the traditional video shop model, customers had a simple choice: accumulate late fees or return the unwatched film. Added to this, traditional shops often only stocked a finite amount of “blockbuster” movies. Lovefilm not only resolved the late fee issue by allowing customers to return films whenever they wanted, but also created a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Tail" title="Wikipedia: Long Tail">long tail</a> of films; and exhaustive collection from which each customer could assemble a queue.</p>
<p>In practice though, Lovefilm customers end up watching fewer films than they might have expected. Why? One reason is that Lovefilm forces us to choose based on what we think we want to see in the future; and we’re bad at predicting our future habits. This isn’t bad for Lovefilm since it is based upon a subscription model, so it saves on postage whilst boosting profits.</p>
<p>The future for Lovefilm will be in the streaming business, much like Netflix does in the US. With streaming, consumers will no longer need to predict what they want to watch in the future. Instead, watching films becomes an on demand service; we’re paying for the right to watch any film at any time, regardless of whether that is what we end up doing.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="twitter" tabindex="-1">Twitter<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#twitter"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Twitter</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Much like with Facebook, users want to display a self that is somewhere between their real-life self and how they would like to be perceived, which creates a substantial motivation for constant monitoring and updates to their status list and Wall.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most addictive feature for both Twitter and Facebook is that it allows us to enhance our status relatively cheaply, in a way that was not possible 5 years ago, whilst also providing the ability to share; we get tremendous social capital from being seen as generous and as someone whom other people mention.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="zynga" tabindex="-1">Zynga<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/youre-being-gamed/#zynga"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Zynga</span></a></h2></div>
<p>People become emotionally invested in things they’ve built or created. This emotional investment leads people to value their own possessions or creations irrationally high. The longer the emotional investment, the higher the value. Dan Ariely dubs this the “Ikea effect” in honour of how your rickety Swedish bookshelf seems perfect after you’ve put hours of frustrating work into assembling it.</p>
<p>This emotional investment is exactly what Zynga uses to great success with FarmVille, CityVille and other social games. Once someone takes a little time to start building a farm, they become invested in maintain it and hence value it more highly. The more complex and time-consuming the task, the more we fall in love with the creation (assuming the appropriate level of reward) and the more we become engrossed in the game.</p>
<p>The compulsion to create is reinforced by social interactions. Much of the action in these games is about reciprocity: people give you useful things and you’re expected to respond in kind. Reciprocity is a powerful motivator. When someone does us good, we want to return the favour; in FarmVille that translates into spending more and more time playing the game.</p>
<p><strong>Further reading:</strong></p>
<ul>
<li>Journal of Behavioural Decision Making – <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0771(199912)12:4%3C257::AID-BDM327%3E3.0.CO;2-6" title="Mixing virtue and vice: combining the immediacy effect and the diversification heuristic">Mixing virtue and vice: combining the immediacy effect and the diversification heuristic</a></li>
<li>Journal of Consumer Research – <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/591102" title="Stigma by Association in Coupon Redemption: Looking Cheap because of Others">Stigma by Association in Coupon Redemption: Looking Cheap because of Others</a></li>
<li>Journal of Marketing Science – <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1287/mksc.1060.0254" title="Zero as a Special Price: The True Value of Free Products">Zero as a Special Price: The True Value of Free Products</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/product/184668028X/" title="Snoop: What Your Stuff Says About You">Snoop: What Your Stuff Says About You</a> by Sam Gosling</li>
<li>Foundations of Human Sociality – <a href="http://www.hss.caltech.edu/~camerer/Camerer-Fehrjan30.pdf" title="Measuring social norms and preferences using experimental games: A guide for social scientists">Measuring social norms and preferences using experimental games: A guide for social scientists</a> by Colin Camerer and Ernst Fehr (PDF 150KB, pp.40)</li>
</ul>
Dan Ariely on how we’re gaming ourselves2011-08-23T16:53:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-we-are-gaming-ourselves/<p>For some of the online world’s compulsions, we have only ourselves to blame.</p>
<p>Think about email: In the past few years, we’ve arrived at an equilibrium point where everyone expects everyone else to be on email all the time. For most people, this isn’t a good thing. One of my friends, the business analytics expert Ken Rona, has shown that charging a nominal amount (5 cents per message) for email caused people to think more carefully about what they were writing and ultimately increased productivity in a significant way. But as with any other social norm, it’s now hard for individuals to opt out. A while ago, I tried to read email only in the evenings, but pretty soon I found myself showing up for meetings that had been canceled 15 minutes beforehand.</p>
<p>How did we get to this point? Most of the emails we receive are useless to us, but paradoxically, that fact may be partly to blame for our feeling compelled to read them. In animal experiments, famed psychologist B. F. Skinner and his colleague C. B. Ferster showed that random reinforcement is far better than regular reinforcement in modifying behaviour. If a pigeon gets food every 100th time it presses a button, it will usually keep pressing. But if the reward comes randomly—sometimes after 50 presses and sometimes after 150—the pigeon will press with much more vigour, even after the rewards are removed entirely. Email does something similar. From time to time we get a very important message, so when we see new mail waiting, we are compelled to read it in the hope it might be something wonderful, even though it usually winds up being unimportant.</p>
<p>We also let ourselves be gamed every day by one of the oldest technologies of all: the calendar. Because it displays our nonscheduled time as empty space, our calendar apps encourage us to pack our days with events. Think how differently we’d interact with our calendars if the default was for time slots not to be empty—if, instead, they were pre-populated with tasks like thinking, writing, and planning. We’d be far less likely to neglect the opportunity costs: Every time we accept an obligation, it would be clear that we are giving something up.</p>
<p>Another calendar problem is related to what behavioural economists Gal Zauberman and John Lynch call “resource slack.” Their research has shown that when people estimate future time and money, we are overly optimistic about how much flexibility (slack) we’ll have. But we’re even more unrealistic about time than money. Lynch, who was my dissertation adviser, used to give me this advice: When someone asks you to do something in a year, ask yourself whether you’d accept if it were happening in the next two weeks. Based on our calendar, it looks as if we will have nothing do a year from now. In reality, though, our typical week next year will look a lot like this week.</p>
<p>But until my calendar starts to simulate that, I’ll likely keep surrendering my days to stuff I never should have scheduled.</p>
<p><em>Dan Ariely (<a href="http://twitter.com/danariely" title="Twitter - Dan Ariely">@danariely</a>) is a professor of psychology and behavioural economics. He is the author of Predictably Irrational and The Upside of Irrationality.</em></p>
IBM’s design principles2011-11-02T09:28:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/ibm-design-principles/<p>Software can be designed to simplify tasks and to create a positive overall experience for users. Thoroughly understanding the goals of users and stakeholders and designing software with those goals in mind are the best approaches to successfully delivering products that will delight customers.</p>
<p>The following checklist identifies core principles and best practices to assist software designers and developers to produce software that stands out in the marketplace.</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>Concepts from the product’s subject domain (for example, systems management) should be central and apparent in the software design</strong> – The relationships among user interface objects in products should be accurate, so that users can rely on their previous experience in the domain when learning and using the software.</li>
<li><strong>Keep it simple</strong> – Give easy access to the features that most users will need most of the time; features used less often or by only a subset of users are placed less prominently.</li>
<li><strong>Optimise the design for the most frequent or important tasks</strong> – Understanding how users will use the software you are designing is critically important. Designers should use that understanding to anticipate the information, task flows, and features that users require at key points within the user experience.</li>
<li><strong>Make the interface accessible and visible to users</strong> – Design your Web site or application so that users can view and easily access objects or information within the interface. Choices should be visible to users rather than hidden with cryptic key sequences. When objects and choices are immediately visible, users learn and complete work tasks efficiently.</li>
<li><strong>Use proper default values when supporting complex tasks</strong> – Use good defaults so that users can complete tasks relatively easily and quickly rather overwhelming them with choices.</li>
<li><strong>Be flexible</strong> – Let users customise the application to meet their unique needs. For example, specialised users could be given a way to make secondary choices more prominent in the product. Also, don’t limit users by artificially restricting their choices to a “correct” sequence. Flexibility is also enhanced by letting users select options in various sequences and in letting them modify default values.</li>
<li><strong>Keep your users informed and in control by providing informative and timely feedback tailored to the current situation</strong> – For example, progress indicators let users know that their system is healthy and is carrying out their request. At a minimum, alert users when they take actions that will result in the loss of data. (Ideally, such choices would be disabled or even eliminated when they are inappropriate in a particular situation.) All the information included in the feedback should be meaningful to the average user.</li>
<li><strong>Things that look the same should behave in the same way, and an action should always produce the same result</strong> – Avoid modes that change the effects of actions. Where modes are unavoidable, make them clear to the user and easy to change.</li>
<li><strong>Provide the ability to undo and redo actions</strong> – Applications must provide users with the ability to freely explore applications (which includes the ability to make mistakes) without fearing permanent damage.</li>
<li><strong>Make your application predictable by using industry standard user interface conventions wherever possible</strong> – For example, users should be able to use standard selection models and keyboard equivalents like Ctrl+C and Shift+→ (to copy the currently selected object and extend the current selection one unit to the right, respectively) everywhere they work with data. Use a common set of design patterns and guidelines so that users don’t have to relearn how to perform common tasks.</li>
<li><strong>Always keep your target users in mind as the product is designed</strong> – Developing personas and identifying and defining the roles your users fulfil can help you understand how various roles will use your product. Designs based on typical workflows and the other software that users might use in conjunction with yours will delight users.</li>
<li><strong>Avoid adding features just so they can be ticked off a list</strong> – Remember that every additional feature equals a set of choices added to what is likely already a wide array of choices. Too many choices can overwhelm users.</li>
<li><strong>Design your user interface so that it can be localised for other geographies without redesigning the interface</strong> – For example, don’t crowd form controls too tightly so they can accommodate longer German translations.</li>
<li><strong>Consider persons with disabilities when designing your applications</strong> – Many users of your product may have impaired vision or physical limitations that affect their ability to use a mouse or a joystick.</li>
<li><strong>Design the application so that contextual help is available to users when they need it</strong> – Users should not have to refer to Help constantly to complete their tasks.</li>
<li><strong>Bring objects to life through good visual design</strong> – The goal of visual design in the user interface is to surface to the user in a cohesive manner all aspects of the design principles. Visual design should support the user model and communicate the function of that model without ambiguities. Visual design should not be the “icing on the cake” but rather an integral part of the design process. The final result should be an intuitive and familiar representation that is second nature to users.</li>
<li><strong>Create user interfaces that promote clarity and visual simplicity</strong> – The following visual design principles help create that effect:
<ul>
<li><strong>Subtractive design</strong> – Reduce clutter by eliminating any visual element that doesn’t contribute directly to visual communication.</li>
<li><strong>Visual hierarchy</strong> – Understand the importance of users’ tasks and establish a visual hierarchy of these tasks. An important object can be given visual prominence. Relative position and contrast in colour and size can be used to convey task importance.</li>
<li><strong>Affordance</strong> – When users can easily determine the action that should be taken with an object, that object displays good affordance. Objects with good affordance usually mimic actual objects.</li>
<li><strong>Visual scheme</strong> – Design a visual scheme that maps to the user model and lets the user customise the interface. Do not eliminate extra space in your image just to save space. Use white space to provide visual “breathing room.”</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ol>
Donald Norman’s 3 dimensions of emotional design2011-11-10T10:19:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/donald-norman-3-dimensions-of-emotional-design/<p><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Emotional-Design-Love-Everyday-Things/dp/0465051367/" title="Amazon: Emotional Design: Why We Love (or Hate) Everyday Things">Emotional Design</a> is both the title of a book by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Norman" title="Wikipedia: Donald Norman">Donald Norman</a> and of the concept it represents. The main issue discussed is that emotions have a crucial role in the human ability to understand the world, and how they learn new things.</p>
<p>For example, aesthetically pleasing objects appear to the user to be more effective, by virtue of their sensual appeal. This is due to the affinity the user feels for an object that appeals to them, due to the formation of an emotional connection [with the object].</p>
<p>Norman’s approach is based on classical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Wikipedia: ABC model of attitudes">ABC model of attitudes</a>. However, Norman changed the concept to be suitable for application in design. The three dimensions have new names (visceral, behavioural and reflective level) and partially new content. In the book, Norman shows that design of most objects are perceived on all three levels (dimensions). Therefore a good design should address all three levels.</p>
<ul>
<li>The <strong>Visceral</strong> level is obtained through intuition rather than from reasoning or observation. This level is influenced significantly by appearance, texture and sound of objects.</li>
<li>The <strong>Behavioural</strong> level refers to the actions or reactions of a person, usually in relation to the environment, to an object or person. Behaviour can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert and voluntary or involuntary. This level is about functionality and is influenced by pleasure and effectiveness of use (accessibility and usability).</li>
<li>The <strong>Reflective</strong> level refers to the capability of quiet thought or contemplation. This level is influenced strongly by self-image, satisfaction, memory and the meaning of things. This level becomes more important as products mature.</li>
</ul>
<p><img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/three-dimensions-of-emotional-design/venn-donald-norman.gif" alt="Donald Norman - Emotional Design Venn Diagram" title="Donald Norman - Emotional Design Venn Diagram" /></p>
<p>Norman postulates that these three dimensions are interwoven through any successful design and that it is not possible to have <em>design</em> without all three.</p>
<p>The three dimensions interweave both emotions and cognition. Emotion is a necessary part of life, affecting how you feel, how you behave and you think. Without emotions, Norman suggests any decision making would be impaired. Emotion passes judgement and gives continual feedback allowing you to make valuable decisions and is therefore key in any approach to successful design.</p>
Lund’s expert ratings of usability maxims2011-11-19T11:30:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/lund-expert-ratings-of-usability-maxims/<p>Published in the Ergonomics in Design journal in 1997, Arnold Lund collected and created this list of 34 rules-of-thumb (given below in order of priority) that were found particularly useful during the design process by colleagues working in the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) design field.</p>
<p>The list is still as relevant today as it was back in 1997.</p>
<ol>
<li>Know thy user, and YOU are not thy user.</li>
<li>Things that look the same should act the same.</li>
<li>Everyone makes mistakes, so every mistake should be fixable.</li>
<li>The information for the decision needs to be there when the decision is needed.</li>
<li>Error messages should actually mean something to the user, and tell the user how to fix the problem.</li>
<li>Every action should have a reaction.</li>
<li>Don’t overload the user’s buffers.</li>
<li>Consistency, consistency, consistency.</li>
<li>Minimise the need for a mighty memory.</li>
<li>Keep it simple.</li>
<li>The more you do something, the easier it should be to do.</li>
<li>The user should always know what is happening.</li>
<li>The user should control the system. The system shouldn’t control the user. The user is the boss, and the system should show it.</li>
<li>The idea is to empower the user, not speed up the system.</li>
<li>Eliminate unnecessary decisions, and illuminate the rest.</li>
<li>If I made an error, let me know about it before I get into REAL trouble.</li>
<li>The best journey is the one with the fewest steps. Shorten the distance between the user and their goal.</li>
<li>The user should be able to do what the user wants to do.</li>
<li>Things that look different should act different.</li>
<li>You should always know how to find out what to do next.</li>
<li>Don’t let people accidentally shoot themselves.</li>
<li>Even experts are novices at some point. Provide help.</li>
<li>Design for regular people and the real world.</li>
<li>Keep it neat. Keep it organised.</li>
<li>Provide a way to bail out and start over.</li>
<li>The fault is not in thyself, but in thy system.</li>
<li>If it is not needed, it’s not needed.</li>
<li>Colour is information.</li>
<li>Everything in its place, and a place for everything.</li>
<li>The user should be in a good mood when done.</li>
<li>If I made an error, at least let me finish my thought before I have to fix it.</li>
<li>Cute is not a good adjective for systems.</li>
<li>Let people shape the system to themselves, and paint it with their own personality.</li>
<li>To know the system is to love it.</li>
</ol>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references" tabindex="-1">References<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/lund-expert-ratings-of-usability-maxims/#references"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References</span></a></h2></div>
<ol>
<li>Lund, A. M. (1997). Expert ratings of usability maxims. Ergonomics in Design, 5(3), 15-20. A study of the heuristics design experts consider important for good design.</li>
</ol>
Disney’s 12 basic principles of animation2012-02-27T10:01:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/<p>The Twelve Basic Principles of Animation is a set of principles of animation introduced by the Disney animators Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas in their 1981 book <a href="http://www.amazon.com/ILLUSION-LIFE-DISNEY-ANIMATION/dp/0786860707/" title="The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation, by Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas">The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation</a>.</p>
<p>Johnston and Thomas in turn based their book on the work of the leading Disney animators from the 1930s onwards and their effort to produce more realistic animations. The main purpose of the principles was to produce an illusion of characters adhering to the basic laws of physics, but they also dealt with more abstract issues, such as emotional timing and character appeal.</p>
<p>Some of these principles have great relevance for the animations in the user interface, from ebook page transitions, to page-scroll velocity, momentum and inertia on mobile devices and JavaScript animations in a browser.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-squash-and-stretch" tabindex="-1">1. Squash and stretch<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#1-squash-and-stretch"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. Squash and stretch</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The most important principle is “squash and stretch”, the purpose of which is to give a sense of weight and flexibility to drawn objects. It can be applied to simple objects, like a bouncing ball, or more complex constructions, like the musculature of a human face. Taken to an extreme point, a figure stretched or squashed to an exaggerated degree can have a comical effect. In realistic animation, however, the most important aspect of this principle is the fact that an object’s volume does not change when squashed or stretched. If the length of a ball is stretched vertically, its width in three dimensions, also its depth needs to contract correspondingly horizontally.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-anticipation" tabindex="-1">2. Anticipation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#2-anticipation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Anticipation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Anticipation is used to prepare the audience for an action and to make the action appear more realistic. A dancer jumping off the floor has to bend his knees first; a golfer making a swing has to swing the club back first. The technique can also be used for less physical actions, such as a character looking off-screen to anticipate someone’s arrival, or attention focusing on an object that a character is about to pick up.</p>
<p>For special effect, anticipation can also be omitted in cases where it is expected. The resulting sense of anticlimax will produce a feeling of surprise in the viewer and can often add comedy to a scene. This is often referred to as a ‘surprise gag’.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-staging" tabindex="-1">3. Staging<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#3-staging"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Staging</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This principle is akin to staging as it is known in theatre and film. Its purpose is to direct the audience’s attention and make it clear what is of greatest importance in a scene; what is happening and what is about to happen. Johnston and Thomas defined it as “the presentation of any idea so that it is completely and unmistakably clear”, whether that idea is an action, a personality, an expression or a mood. This can be done by various means, such as the placement of a character in the frame, the use of light and shadow and the angle and position of the camera. The essence of this principle is keeping <strong>focus on what is relevant and avoiding unnecessary detail</strong>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-straight-ahead-action-and-pose-to-pose" tabindex="-1">4. Straight ahead action and pose to pose<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#4-straight-ahead-action-and-pose-to-pose"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Straight ahead action and pose to pose</span></a></h2></div>
<p>These are two different approaches to the actual drawing process. “Straight ahead action” means drawing out a scene frame by frame from beginning to end, while “pose to pose” involves starting with drawing a few key frames and then filling in the intervals later. “Straight ahead action” creates a more fluid, dynamic illusion of movement and is better for producing realistic action sequences. On the other hand, it is hard to maintain proportions and to create exact, convincing poses along the way. “Pose to pose” works better for dramatic or emotional scenes, where composition and relation to the surroundings are of greater importance. A combination of the two techniques is often used.</p>
<p>Computer animation removes the problems of proportion related to “straight ahead action” drawing; however, “pose to pose” is still used for computer animation, because of the advantages it brings in composition. The use of computers facilitates this method, as computers can fill in the missing sequences in between poses automatically. It is, however, still important to oversee this process and apply the other principles discussed.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-follow-through-and-overlapping-action" tabindex="-1">5. Follow through and overlapping action<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#5-follow-through-and-overlapping-action"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Follow through and overlapping action</span></a></h2></div>
<p>These closely related techniques help render movement more realistically and give the impression that characters follow the laws of physics. “Follow through” means that separate parts of a body will continue moving after the character has stopped. “Overlapping action” is the tendency for parts of the body to move at different rates an arm will move on different timing of the head and so on. A third technique is “drag”, where a character starts to move and parts of him take a few frames to catch up. These parts can be inanimate objects like clothing or the antenna on a car, or parts of the body, such as arms or hair. On the human body, the torso is the core, with arms, legs, head and hair appendices that normally follow the torso’s movement. Body parts with much tissue, such as large stomachs and breasts, or the loose skin on a dog, are more prone to independent movement than bonier body parts. Again, exaggerated use of the technique can produce a comical effect, while more realistic animation must time the actions exactly, to produce a convincing result.</p>
<p>Thomas and Johnston also developed the principle of the “moving hold”. A character not in movement can be rendered absolutely still; this is often done, particularly to draw attention to the main action. According to Thomas and Johnston, however, this gave a dull and lifeless result and should be avoided. Even characters sitting still can display some sort of movement, such as the torso moving in and out with breathing.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="6-slow-in-and-slow-out" tabindex="-1">6. Slow in and slow out<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#6-slow-in-and-slow-out"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. Slow in and slow out</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The movement of the human body and most other objects, needs time to accelerate and slow down. For this reason, animation looks more realistic if it has more drawings near the beginning and end of an action, emphasising the extreme poses and fewer in the middle. This principle goes for characters moving between two extreme poses, such as sitting down and standing up, but also for inanimate, moving objects, like the bouncing ball in the above illustration.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="7-arcs" tabindex="-1">7. Arcs<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#7-arcs"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 7. Arcs</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Most natural action tends to follow an arched trajectory and animation should adhere to this principle by following implied “arcs” for greater realism. This can apply to a limb moving by rotating a joint, or a thrown object moving along a parabolic trajectory. The exception is mechanical movement, which typically moves in straight lines.</p>
<p>As an object’s speed and momentum increases, arcs tend to flatten out in moving ahead and broaden in turns. In baseball, a fastball would tend to move in a straighter line than other pitches; while a figure skater moving at top speed would be unable to turn as sharply as a slower skater and would need to cover more ground to complete the turn.</p>
<p>An object in motion that moves out of its natural arc for no apparent reason will appear erratic rather than fluid. Therefore when animating for example a pointing finger, the animator should be certain that in all drawings in between the two extreme poses, the fingertip follows a logical arc from one extreme to the next. Traditional animators tend to draw the arc in lightly on the paper for reference, to be erased later.<br />
Follow though/Overlapping Action: as the horse runs, its mane and tail follow the movement of the body.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="8-secondary-action" tabindex="-1">8. Secondary action<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#8-secondary-action"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 8. Secondary action</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Adding secondary actions to the main action gives a scene more life and can help to support the main action. A person walking can simultaneously swing his arms or keep them in his pockets, he can speak or whistle, or he can express emotions through facial expressions. The important thing about secondary actions is that they emphasise, rather than take attention away from the main action. If the latter is the case, those actions are better left out. In the case of facial expressions, during a dramatic movement these will often go unnoticed. In these cases it is better to include them at the beginning and the end of the movement, rather than during.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="9-timing" tabindex="-1">9. Timing<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#9-timing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 9. Timing</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Timing refers to the number of drawings or frames for a given action, which translates to the speed of the action on film. On a purely physical level, correct timing makes objects appear to abide to the laws of physics; for instance, an object’s weight decides how it reacts to an impetus, like a push. Timing is critical for establishing a character’s mood, emotion and reaction. It can also be a device to communicate aspects of a character’s personality.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="10-exaggeration" tabindex="-1">10. Exaggeration<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#10-exaggeration"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 10. Exaggeration</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Exaggeration is an effect especially useful for animation, as perfect imitation of reality can look static and dull in cartoons. The level of exaggeration depends on whether one seeks realism or a particular style, like a caricature or the style of an artist. The classical definition of exaggeration, employed by Disney, was to remain true to reality, just presenting it in a wilder, more extreme form. Other forms of exaggeration can involve the supernatural or surreal, alterations in the physical features of a character, or elements in the storyline itself. It is important to employ a certain level of restraint when using exaggeration; if a scene contains several elements, there should be a balance in how those elements are exaggerated in relation to each other, to avoid confusing or overawing the viewer.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="11-solid-drawing" tabindex="-1">11. Solid drawing<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#11-solid-drawing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 11. Solid drawing</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The principle of solid drawing means taking into account forms in three-dimensional space, giving them volume and weight. The animator needs to be a skilled draughtsman and has to understand the basics of three-dimensional shapes, anatomy, weight, balance, light and shadow, etc. For the classical animator, this involved taking art classes and doing sketches from life. One thing in particular that Johnston and Thomas warned against was creating “twins”: characters whose left and right sides mirrored each other and looked lifeless. Modern-day computer animators draw less because of the facilities computers give them, yet their work benefits greatly from a basic understanding of animation principles and their additions to basic computer animation.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="12-appeal" tabindex="-1">12. Appeal<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/disney-12-basic-principles-of-animation/#12-appeal"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 12. Appeal</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Appeal in a cartoon character corresponds to what would be called charisma in an actor. A character who is appealing is not necessarily sympathetic — villains or monsters can also be appealing — the important thing is that the viewer feels the character is real and interesting. There are several tricks for making a character connect better with the audience; for likeable characters a symmetrical or particularly baby-like face tends to be effective. A complicated or hard to read face will lack appeal, it may more accurately be described as ‘captivation’ in the composition of the pose, or the character design.</p>
Apple’s 27 guidelines for mobile user experience design2012-05-20T09:30:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/apple-27-guidelines-for-mobile-user-experience-design/<p>People appreciate mobile apps that feel as though they were designed expressly for the device. For example, when an app fits well on the device screen and responds to the gestures that people know, it provides much of the experience people are looking for. And, although people might not be aware of human interface design principles, such as direct manipulation or consistency, they can tell when apps follow them and when they don’t.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A great user experience is rooted in your attention to detail.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>The user experience of iOS-based devices revolves around streamlined interaction with content that people care about. Below are Apple’s 27 guidelines for mobile UX design:</p>
<ol>
<li>Focus on the primary task</li>
<li>Elevate the content that people care about</li>
<li>Think top down</li>
<li>Give people a logical path to follow</li>
<li>Make usage easy and obvious</li>
<li>Use user-centric terminology</li>
<li>Minimise the effort required for user input</li>
<li>Downplay file-handling operations</li>
<li>Enable collaboration and connectedness</li>
<li>De-emphasise settings</li>
<li>Brand appropriately</li>
<li>Make search quick and rewarding</li>
<li>Entice and inform with a well-written description</li>
<li>Be succinct</li>
<li>Use UI elements consistently</li>
<li>Consider adding physicality and realism</li>
<li>Delight people with stunning graphics</li>
<li>Handle orientation changes</li>
<li>Make targets fingertip-size</li>
<li>Use subtle animation to communicate</li>
<li>Support gestures appropriately</li>
<li>Ask people to save only when necessary</li>
<li>Make modal tasks occasional and simple</li>
<li>Start instantly</li>
<li>Always be prepared to stop</li>
<li>Don’t quit programmatically</li>
<li>If necessary, display a license agreement or disclaimer</li>
</ol>
<p>You can find more on these guidelines in the <a href="http://developer.apple.com/library/ios/#documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/MobileHIG/Introduction/Introduction.html" title="iOS Developer Library - User Experience Guidelines">iOS Developer Library</a>.</p>
<p>There are 5 additional guidelines for iPads:</p>
<ol>
<li>Enhance interactivity (don’t just add features)</li>
<li>Reduce full-screen transitions</li>
<li>Restrain your information hierarchy</li>
<li>Consider using popovers for some modal windows</li>
<li>Migrate toolbar content to the top</li>
</ol>
Creative thinking hacks2012-06-06T18:29:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/creative-thinking-hacks/<p>Back in 2007, <a href="http://www.scottberkun.com/" title="Scott Berkun">Scott Berkun</a> wrote a really interesting essay on <a href="http://www.scottberkun.com/essays/56-creative-thinking-hacks/" title="Scott Berkun - Creative Thinking Hacks">Creative Thinking Hacks</a>. In the article he suggested “all of us possess everything necessary to be more creative. The problem is we’ve been trained away from our creative instincts by schools, parents, movies, workplaces” and now the unerring distraction of the World Wide Web.</p>
<p>It’s like the old adage that we can all draw when we’re kids, but through schooling (formal or otherwise) and into adulthood, we ‘learn’ [read: lose the skill] not to draw. And of course, when we’re adults it’s harder to learn and it’s harder, perhaps, to be creative.</p>
<p>He continues: “The word creativity is frequently inflated by association, frequently appearing with overused, hype-laden words such as genius, brilliance, revolution and innovation. Hype mongers and creative intimidators throw those labels around like candy, scaring most people out of their own natural creative instincts.”</p>
<p>But we can be saved from this plight by a few concepts and tricks, which Scott believes will help anyone be creative at any time:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>Start an idea journal.</strong> The rule is: any idea that pops in your mind, at any time, write it down. There are no inhibitions: any idea for anything goes in here. This will help you find your own creative rhythms, as over time you can note what times of day you’re more creative. Use a paper journal, so you sketch or draw things, but digital journals, like those on the iPad, can work too. Your idea many not be feasible right here and right now, but should be saved. Whenever you’re stuck, flip through your journal. You are bound to find an old idea you’ve forgotten about that can be used towards the problem you’re trying to solve.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Give your subconscious a chance.</strong> The reason ideas come to you in the shower, or just before falling asleep, is that you’re relaxed enough for your subconscious to surface ideas for you. Make this easier: find time to turn your mind off. Go for a run, swim, jog, have sex, something that’s as far from your creative problem as possible.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Inversion.</strong> If you’re stuck, come up for ideas for the opposite of what you want. If your goal was to design the best album cover ever, switch to designing the worst album cover ever. Five minutes at an inverted problem will get your frustrations out, make you laugh, and likely get you past you fears. Odds are high you’ll hit something so horribly bad that it’s almost good, and you’re inspired to switch back to your original goal.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Switch modes.</strong> Everyone has dominate ways to express ideas: sketching, writing, talking. If you switch the mode you’re working in, different ideas are easier to find and your understanding of a particular idea changes every time you use a different medium to express it. This is both a way to find new ideas, and to explore an idea you’re focusing on.</p>
<p>Take an improvisational comedy class. This will be easier and less painful than you think. It will teach you an entirely new way of thinking about the craft of creation. Most improve classes are structured around fun, party type games and teach you ways to combine ideas in real time: a powerful skill for any creator.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Find a partner.</strong> Many people are most creative when they’re with other creative people they like. Partnering up on a project, or even being around other creative people who are working on solo projects, keeps energy levels high. It also gives you a drinking buddy when things go sour.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Stop reading and start doing.</strong> The word create is a verb. Be active. Go make things. Don’t study it like accounting: you have to go do it, and make lots of mistakes, to learn anything about your own creative process. So get off the Web and start making something.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>With all that in mind, now’s the time to go and be creative.</p>
The 22 rules of storytelling, according to Pixar2012-06-11T13:46:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-22-rules-of-storytelling-according-to-pixar/<p>Pixar story artist <a href="http://twitter.com/lawnrocket" title="Emma Coats on Twitter">Emma Coats tweeted</a> a series of “story basics” last year—guidelines that she learned from her colleagues on how to create appealing stories.</p>
<p>Emma doesn’t mention anything about how to defend yourself from your childhood toys, when they inevitably come to murderous life, or how to jump onto a speeding car, but the 22 ‘rules’ are nuggets of narrative wisdom from Pixar.</p>
<ol>
<li>You admire a character for trying more than for their successes.</li>
<li>You gotta keep in mind what’s interesting to you as an audience, not what’s fun to do as a writer. They can be very different.</li>
<li>Trying for theme is important, but you won’t see what the story is actually about until you’re at the end of it. Now rewrite.</li>
<li>Once upon a time there was ___. Every day, ___. One day ___. Because of that, ___. Because of that, ___. Until finally ___.</li>
<li>Simplify. Focus. Combine characters. Hop over detours. You’ll feel like you’re losing valuable stuff but it sets you free.</li>
<li>What is your character good at, comfortable with? Throw the polar opposite at them. Challenge them. How do they deal?</li>
<li>Come up with your ending before you figure out your middle. Seriously. Endings are hard, get yours working up front.</li>
<li>Finish your story, let go even if it’s not perfect. In an ideal world you have both, but move on. Do better next time.</li>
<li>When you’re stuck, make a list of what WOULDN’T happen next. Lots of times the material to get you unstuck will show up.</li>
<li>Pull apart the stories you like. What you like in them is a part of you; you’ve got to recognise it before you can use it.</li>
<li>Putting it on paper lets you start fixing it. If it stays in your head, a perfect idea, you’ll never share it with anyone.</li>
<li>Discount the 1st thing that comes to mind. And the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th – get the obvious out of the way. Surprise yourself.</li>
<li>Give your characters opinions. Passive/malleable might seem likeable to you as you write, but it’s poison to the audience.</li>
<li>Why must you tell THIS story? What’s the belief burning within you that your story feeds off of? That’s the heart of it.</li>
<li>If you were your character, in this situation, how would you feel? Honesty lends credibility to unbelievable situations.</li>
<li>What are the stakes? Give us reason to root for the character. What happens if they don’t succeed? Stack the odds against.</li>
<li>No work is ever wasted. If it’s not working, let go and move on – it’ll come back around to be useful later.</li>
<li>You have to know yourself: the difference between doing your best and fussing. Story is testing, not refining.</li>
<li>Coincidences to get characters into trouble are great; coincidences to get them out of it are cheating.</li>
<li>Exercise: take the building blocks of a movie you dislike. How do you rearrange them into what you DO like?</li>
<li>You gotta identify with your situation/characters, can’t just write ‘cool’. What would make YOU act that way?</li>
<li>What’s the essence of your story? Most economical telling of it? If you know that, you can build out from there.</li>
</ol>
Nordstrom’s Innovation Lab – Sunglasses iPad app case study2012-09-16T12:58:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/nordstrom-innovation-lab-sunglasses-ipad-app-case-study/<p>By applying a healthy dose of Lean and Agile methodologies to projects, the waterfall model of software development has been replaced leading to rapid innovation and learning.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It’s one thing to talk about ‘rapid experimentation’ and ‘validated learning’ as abstract concepts. It’s quite another to see them in action, in a real-world setting.<br />
—Eric Ries, <a href="http://www.startuplessonslearned.com/2011/10/case-study-nordstrom-innovation-lab.html" title="Case Study: The Nordstrom Innovation Lab">Startup Lessons Learned</a></p>
</blockquote>
<p>Nordstrom has put Eric Reis’ statement into practice by creating an ‘innovation lab’. The following video is an interesting case study on <a href="http://uxdesign.smashingmagazine.com/2011/03/07/lean-ux-getting-out-of-the-deliverables-business/" title="Lean UX: Getting Out Of The Deliverables Business">Lean UX</a> and what Nordstrom are doing to embrace innovation.</p>
<div class="app-video">
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<p><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JG-pmctxlLs">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JG-pmctxlLs</a></p>
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<a href="/content/writing/nordstrom-innovation-lab-sunglasses-ipad-app-case-study/Nordstrom_Innovation_Lab_Sunglass_iPad_App_Case_Study.mp4" download>Download</a> the video instead.
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<p>Here are some of the highlights from the video:</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>One week experiments.</strong> Innovation and agility is notoriously difficult for large organisations such as Nordstrom, but by working in one week iterations, the lab is able to break from the usual corporate slowness. In the video above, the team creates a usable product in one week.</li>
<li><strong>Simple and rapid experimentation.</strong> By having two iPads, the team were able to use one for testing, while another was loaded with the latest version of the software, cutting down the time needed to deploy each release.</li>
<li><strong>Innovation on the shop floor.</strong> By being on the shop floor, the lab is able to rapidly prototype and test their ideas with real users: the salespeople and customers. This also allows them to identify an opportunity and execute it extremely quickly. An example is when the team discover iPad screens can’t be seen in portrait when wearing polaroid sunglasses.</li>
</ul>
<p>Arguably, innovation should flow through the veins of everyone in the company, but where that is unrealistic, or impossible, ‘innovation labs’ such as Nordstrom’s, are helping to extol the virtues of the Lean movement.</p>
Plutchik’s wheel of emotion2013-04-04T22:47:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/<p>Pyschologist Robert Plutchik developed one of the most popular classifications of emotion called Plutchik’s wheel of emotion.</p>
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<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion.png" alt="Plutchik’s wheel of emotion" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: Plutchik’s wheel of emotion. <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion.pdf">Download a copy of the wheel</a> (PDF 38KB)</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>Plutchik suggested that people experience eight core or primary emotions, which he arranged in opposite pairs on a wheel:</p>
<ul>
<li>joy and sadness</li>
<li>trust and loathing</li>
<li>fear and anger</li>
<li>surprise and anticipation</li>
</ul>
<p>These eight emotions are organised based on the physiological purpose of each.</p>
<p>The wheel is actually a cone that unfolds to the emotion wheel.</p>
<p>According to <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27857503">Plutchik’s theory</a>, these basic emotions can intensify, become milder, or combine to produce a range of emotional states.</p>
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<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion-dyads.png" alt="Plutchik’s emotion dyads" />
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<p>Figure 2: Plutchik’s emotion dyads. <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion-dyads.pdf">Download a copy of the dyads</a> (PDF 25KB)</p>
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<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="combining-emotions" tabindex="-1">Combining emotions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#combining-emotions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Combining emotions</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The eight primary emotions can be combined into twenty-four primary, secondary and tertiary dyads—feelings composed of two emotions.</p>
<p>The combination of emotions can be paired in four groups:</p>
<ol>
<li><strong>primary dyads</strong> are adjacent or one petal apart, for example love is a combination of joy and trust</li>
<li><strong>secondary dyads</strong> are two petals apart, for example envy is a combination of sadness and anger</li>
<li><strong>tertiary dyads</strong> are three petals apart, for example shame is a combination of fear and disgust</li>
<li><strong>opposite emotions</strong> are four petals apart, for example anticipation is the opposite of surprise</li>
</ol>
<p>There are also triads—emotions formed from 3 primary emotions. This leads to a combination of 24 dyads and 32 triads, making 56 emotions at 1 intensity level.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="primary-dyad-combinations" tabindex="-1">Primary dyad combinations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#primary-dyad-combinations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Primary dyad combinations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Combining adjacent emotions leads to additional emotional states:</p>
<ul>
<li>joy + trust = love (with its opposite being remorse)</li>
<li>trust + fear = submission (with its opposite being contempt)</li>
<li>fear + surprise = awe (with its opposite being aggression)</li>
<li>surprise + sadness = disapproval (with its opposite being optimism)</li>
<li>sadness + disgust = remorse (with its opposite being love)</li>
<li>disgust + anger = contempt (with its opposite being submission)</li>
<li>anger + anticipation = aggressiveness (with its opposite being awe)</li>
<li>anticipation + joy = optimism (with its opposite being disapproval)</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="secondary-dyad-combinations" tabindex="-1">Secondary dyad combinations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#secondary-dyad-combinations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Secondary dyad combinations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Combining emotions two petals apart leads to the following emotional states:</p>
<ul>
<li>joy + fear = guilt (with its opposite being envy)</li>
<li>trust + surprise = curiosity (with its opposite being cynicism)</li>
<li>fear + sadness = despair (with its opposite being pride)</li>
<li>surprise + disgust = unbelief (with its opposite being hope)</li>
<li>sadness + anger = envy (with its opposite being guilt)</li>
<li>disgust + anticipation = cynicism (with its opposite being curiosity)</li>
<li>anger + joy = pride (with its opposite being despair)</li>
<li>anticipation + trust = hope (with its opposite being unbelief)</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="tertiary-dyad-combinations" tabindex="-1">Tertiary dyad combinations<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#tertiary-dyad-combinations"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Tertiary dyad combinations</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Combining emotions three petals apart leads to the following emotional states:</p>
<ul>
<li>joy + surprise = delight (with its opposite being pessimism)</li>
<li>trust + sadness = sentimentality (with its opposite being morbidness)</li>
<li>fear + disgust = shame (with its opposite being dominance)</li>
<li>surprise + anger = outrage (with its opposite being anxiety)</li>
<li>sadness + anticipation = pessimism (with its opposite being delight)</li>
<li>disgust + joy = morbidness (with its opposite being sentimentality)</li>
<li>anger + trust = dominance (with its opposite being shame)</li>
<li>anticipation + fear = anxiety (with its opposite being outrage)</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="intensity-levels" tabindex="-1">Intensity levels<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#intensity-levels"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Intensity levels</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The cone’s vertical dimension represents intensity. On the wheel, emotions intensify towards the centre, which is also indicated by the darkening colour. The darker the shade, the more intense the emotion. For example, joy at its least intense is serenity and at its most intense is ecstasy. Similarly, anger at its least intense is annoyance and its most intense is rage.</p>
<p>Intensity of emotions is an important aspect to be aware of. If left unchecked, emotions can intensify.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="emotions-and-their-opposites" tabindex="-1">Emotions and their opposites<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#emotions-and-their-opposites"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Emotions and their opposites</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Emotions can be mild or intense, for example, distraction is a mild form of surprise, and rage is an intense form of anger.</p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Mild emotion</th>
<th>Mild opposite</th>
<th>Basic emotion</th>
<th>Basic opposite</th>
<th>Intense emotion</th>
<th>Intense opposite</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Serenity</td>
<td>Pensiveness</td>
<td>Joy</td>
<td>Sadness</td>
<td>Ecstasy</td>
<td>Grief</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Acceptance</td>
<td>Boredom</td>
<td>Trust</td>
<td>Disgust</td>
<td>Admiration</td>
<td>Loathing</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Apprehension</td>
<td>Annoyance</td>
<td>Fear</td>
<td>Anger</td>
<td>Terror</td>
<td>Rage</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Distraction</td>
<td>Interest</td>
<td>Surprise</td>
<td>Anticipation</td>
<td>Amazement</td>
<td>Vigilance</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="use-in-design" tabindex="-1">Use in design<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#use-in-design"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Use in design</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Emotions are often complex, and being able to recognise when a feeling is actually a combination of two or more distinct feelings is a skill. Enhancing your emotional literacy allows you to understand and effectively navigate emotions.</p>
<p>The wheel can be used by designers to understand the complexities of emotion and to act as a palette for emotional design—the idea being that blending different emotions will create different emotional responses and intensities of response.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/plutchik-wheel-of-emotion/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Plutchik, R. (2001). The Nature of Emotions: Human emotions have deep evolutionary roots, a fact that may explain their complexity and provide tools for clinical practice. American Scientist, 89(4), 344-350. Retrieved April 4, 2013, from <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/27857503">http://www.jstor.org/stable/27857503</a></li>
<li>Optimising emotional engagement in web design through metrics on Smashing Magazine <a href="http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2011/05/optimizing-emotional-engagement-in-web-design-through-metrics/">http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2011/05/optimizing-emotional-engagement-in-web-design-through-metrics/</a></li>
<li>Emotional classifications on Wikipedia <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_classification</a></li>
</ul>
Tom Drummond’s vocabulary of emotions2013-04-09T13:43:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/vocabulary-of-emotions/<p>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/vocabulary-of-emotions/vocabulary-of-emotions.pdf">vocabulary of emotions</a> by Tom Drummond is a practical source of inspiration and a means for communication in design practice and education.</p>
<figure class="app-document"><a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/vocabulary-of-emotions/vocabulary-of-emotions.pdf">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/vocabulary-of-emotions/vocabulary-of-emotions.png" alt="Vocabulary of emotions" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-document__caption">
<p>Document 1: Vocabulary of emotions by Tom Drummond (PDF, 38KB, 1 page)</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
How are you feeling today? A vocabulary of emotions by Jim Borgman2013-04-09T13:46:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-are-you-feeling-today-vocabulary-of-emotions/<p>How are you feeling today, by Jim Borgman, is an imaginative way to help people understand and identify their emotions.</p>
<p>Some people struggle to communicate their needs and emotions, particularly children. This chart is designed to make the difficult task of communicating feelings a little easier by visualising each emotion.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/how-are-you-feeling-today-vocabulary-of-emotions/vocabulary-of-emotions.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/how-are-you-feeling-today-vocabulary-of-emotions/vocabulary-of-emotions.png" alt="How are you feeling today? A vocabulary of emotions by Jim Borgman" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: How are you feeling today? A vocabulary of emotions by Jim Borgman</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
Taxonomy of emotions2013-04-10T11:49:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/taxonomy-of-emotions/<p>Products and services can evoke a wide range of emotions, both negative and positive. Considering these emotions in the design process is an important step in understanding behavioural impact.</p>
<p>Negative emotions stimulate individuals to reject (or withdraw from) the object of their emotion, positive emotions stimulate individuals to accept (or approach) the object.</p>
<p>In consumer research, effects of positive emotions have been found that are in line with this general tendency: Positive emotions stimulate product purchase intentions (Pham, 1998; Bitner, 1992), repurchase intentions (Westbrook & Oliver, 1991), and product attachment (Mugge, Schoormans, & Schifferstein, 2005).</p>
<p>In the field of ergonomics, positive emotions have been demonstrated to have additional beneficial effects during product usage. When using complex technology, positive emotions decrease usage anxiety (Picard, 1997; Helander & Tham, 2003) and contribute to the experience of usage comfort (Vink, 2005) and to general usability (Tractinsky, Shoval-Katz, & Ikar, 2000).</p>
<p>Products that evoke positive emotions are bought more often, used more often, and are more pleasurable to use. It‘s therefore indisputably worthwhile to design products that evoke positive emotions—products that make users feel good.</p>
<p>By providing a taxonomy of emotions that people can experience in response to product and service design, the typology aims to facilitate both research and design activities.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/taxonomy-of-emotions/taxonomy-of-emotions.pdf">taxonomy of emotions</a> (Storm & Storm, 1987) (PDF, 24KB, 6 pages) is a practical source of inspiration and a means for communication in design practice and education.</p>
<figure class="app-document"><a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/taxonomy-of-emotions/taxonomy-of-emotions.pdf">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/taxonomy-of-emotions/taxonomy-of-emotions.png" alt="Taxonomy of emotions" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-document__caption">
<p>Document 1: Taxonomy of emotions (Storm & Storm, 1987) (PDF, 24KB, 6 pages)</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="references-and-further-reading" tabindex="-1">References and further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/taxonomy-of-emotions/#references-and-further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled References and further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Bitner, M. J. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. Journal of Marketing, 56(2), 57-71.</li>
<li>Desmet, P. 2012 Aug 30. Faces of Product Pleasure: 25 Positive Emotions in Human-Product Interactions. International Journal of Design [Online] 6:2. Available: <a href="http://www.ijdesign.org/index.php/IJDesign/article/view/1190/459">http://www.ijdesign.org/index.php/IJDesign/article/view/1190/459</a></li>
<li>Helander, M., & Tham, M. P. (2003) Hedonomics: Affective human factors design. Ergonomics, 46(13/14), 1269-1272.</li>
<li>Mugge, R., Schoormans, J. P. L., & Schifferstein, H. N. J. (2005). Design strategies to postpone consumers’ product replacement. The value of a strong person-product relationship. The Design Journal, 8(2), 38-48.</li>
<li>Pham, M. T. (1998). Representativeness, relevance, and the use of feelings in decision making. Journal of Consumer Research, 25(2), 144-159.</li>
<li>Picard, R. W. (1997). Affective computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</li>
<li>Storm, C., & Storm, T. (1987). A taxonomic study of the vocabulary of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(4), 805–816. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.805">https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.805</a></li>
<li>Tractinsky, N., Shoval-Katz, A., & Ikar, D. (2000). What is beautiful is usable. Interacting with Computers, 13(2), 127-145.</li>
<li>Vink, P. (2005). Comfort and design: Principles and good practice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.</li>
<li>Westbrook, R. A., & Oliver, R. L. (1991). The dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 84-91.</li>
</ul>
Prototyping towards a better user experience2013-09-05T11:29:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/prototyping-towards-a-better-user-experience/<p>Designing websites has traditionally been an expensive and laboured experience. Many hours have been spent pouring over information architecture, deliberating interactions, elaborating upon wireframes and creating pixel-perfect Photoshop and Illustrator compositions, only for those design artefacts to be archived neatly away, on a server, never to be seen again.</p>
<p>What if there was a better way to use our time, energy and resources? How much better would our final products be if we spent what valuable time we had on real <em>design thinking</em> and <em>execution</em>? We can give our clients much greater value for money with only a small change in our perspective and a big change in our process.</p>
<p>In essence, I’m talking about designing, or as <a href="http://twitter.com/danielmall" title="Dan Mall on Twitter">Dan Mall</a> suggests, <em>deciding</em> in the browser. Instead of creating a series of disposable deliverables, such as Axure prototypes and OmniGraffle wireframes, we should consider an evolutionary process, from sketches to the final website. Everything we make or do should move us towards creating a final product with as little waste as possible.</p>
<p>Enter prototyping in code, using the faithful web browser.</p>
<p>Prototyping in code, in the browser, is scary stuff to many designers. It’s something developers do, not designers, which is somewhat at odds with where the Web is today. With the proliferation of mobile devices and responsive design gaining significant traction, along with the increasing maturity of web typography, designing in the browser instead of on static comps is becoming a matter of necessity. As <a href="http://twitter.com/cennydd" title="Cennydd Bowles on Twitter">Cennydd Bowles</a> puts it, “designers should be able to code to the level they require to produce excellent work. Usually that’s ‘some’, but not ‘lots’.”</p>
<p><a href="http://twitter.com/jmspool" title="Jared Spool on Twitter">Jared Spool</a>, another proponent of designers knowing how to code suggests “you’ll better understand the medium you’re working in…If you know what’s easy to code and what’s difficult to code, you can get your ideas implemented faster. Understanding what your medium does well and where isn’t as effective makes for more informed design decisions.”</p>
<p>“Whilst it’s good to know that HTML describes the structure of a page, CSS handles the layout and decoration, and JavaScript can be employed to add behaviours, there’s no voodoo involved,” says <a href="http://twitter.com/aexmo" title="Alex Morris on Twitter">Alex Morris</a>. “There are no hidden traps or anything that can go mysteriously wrong, what you write is what you get.”</p>
<p>Designing in the browser, with HTML and CSS, can produce prototypes that communicate the intent of a design more clearly and effectively than any wireframing tool ever can. Indeed, if we are to think about Responsive Web Design, traditional prototyping tools simply do not support this paradigm, pushing us towards designing in the browser, using browser-based technologies.</p>
<p>While I’m a proponent of writing your own code, with the proliferation of frameworks such as <a href="http://foundation.zurb.com/" title="Foundation framework, by Zurb">Foundation</a>, <a href="http://getbootstrap.com/" title="Bootstrap">Bootstrap</a> and <a href="http://maker.github.io/ratchet/" title="Ratchet">Ratchet</a>, and tools like <a href="https://gridsetapp.com/" title="Gridset app">Gridset</a>, <a href="http://mixture.io/" title="Mixture.io">Mixture.io</a>, <a href="http://www.divshot.com/" title="DivShot">Divshot</a> and <a href="https://jetstrap.com/" title="Jetstrap">Jetstrap</a>, prototyping in HTML, and across different devices, has become remarkably simple and accessible to a broad audience.</p>
<p>Through designing in code and in the browser, the users you’re testing the product experience on, or the client you’re presenting the product to, get to see and engage with it in it’s natural environment. Interactions, behaviours, typography, content and forms are all represented as they would be in the end product. By building prototypes in this way, closer to the product’s intended experience, the feedback you receive from users and clients will more accurately reflect that of the final product; no leap of the imagination is required.</p>
User experience design and research interview questions2016-02-08T09:49:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/<p>During my time on both sides of the interview table, I’ve asked and received a wide range of design and research related questions. For each interview, I’ve tried to compile the questions asked. In planning interviews, I’ve also researched and collated questions others have asked. Here are a few of them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="training-and-skills" tabindex="-1">Training and skills<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#training-and-skills"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Training and skills</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>How does your background in [background] apply to design/UX research?</li>
<li>How did you go from [background] to user experience?</li>
<li>What attracts you to research?</li>
<li>What is your experience with qualitative research methods? (Ethnography, focus groups/group discussions, one-to-one interviews, contextual inquiry, observational research, etc.)</li>
<li>Since your experience is primarily in qualitative methods, how do you feel about quantitative analysis?</li>
<li>What skill do you possess that you think you do better than 99.9% of the entire population?</li>
<li>What do you excel at (your superpower), and what can you improve on (your kryptonite)?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="hands-on-project-experience" tabindex="-1">Hands-on project experience<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#hands-on-project-experience"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Hands-on project experience</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Tell us about some of the most recent projects on which you have worked. (Note: this may be a review of their portfolio or a presentation).</li>
<li>How is what you did at your last job applicable to this one?</li>
<li>If you could go back, are there any projects that you would have done differently?</li>
<li>Tell me about a fascinating project where you discovered something unexpected.</li>
<li>What examples do you have when you had to jump in and learn about something unfamiliar to you?</li>
<li>What experience do you have with [subject]?</li>
<li>What experience do you have with [medium]? (For example, mobile software and hardware).</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-design-process" tabindex="-1">The design process<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#the-design-process"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The design process</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>What is your design process?</li>
<li>How does your design process change for each project you start?</li>
<li>What prototyping tools would you use to create an artefact to test, assuming there wasn’t an actual product to use? (For example, an HTML prototype, or React, InVision, Principle, Framer, etc.)</li>
<li>What are the strengths and weaknesses of prototyping tools you have used?</li>
<li>Describe a time when you led a design project. (Expect to talk about receiving a brief, engaging with stakeholders and users, defining approaches to answer the brief, generating and evaluating ideas, etc.)</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-research-process" tabindex="-1">The research process<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#the-research-process"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The research process</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>What is your research process?</li>
<li>How do you plan your research? (For example, do they pull together hypotheses and objectives to frame a discussion guide?)</li>
<li>How do you choose which methods you’re going to use for a particular project?</li>
<li>How do you assess the requirements of those with different skills and limited devices? (The focus of the answer should be around accessibility.)</li>
<li>Which methods and approaches do you think are the most useful or practical?</li>
<li>What is the value of doing contextual research over lab-based research (for example, focus groups, interviews, etc.)?</li>
<li>How do you incorporate theory into your research?</li>
<li>What are your favourite social science theories?</li>
<li>How do you approach qualitative data analysis?</li>
<li>What tools do you typically use for analysis (for example, affinity mapping, coding, Excel, etc.)?</li>
<li>How do you analyse ethnographic data?</li>
<li>How would you go about researching and developing personas or rudimentary customer segmentation?</li>
<li>What qualitative data analysis software have you used? (For example, Raven’s Eye and Atlas)</li>
<li>At what point in the design process should you use user research? (Expect to talk about generative and evaluative research)</li>
<li>Tell me about a time when you had to change your plan or approach.</li>
<li>How do you balance the perspectives of internal users or voices with external users?</li>
<li>What is your experience working in agile environments?</li>
<li>How does user research fit into the agile process?</li>
<li>Describe how you would use a ‘lean’ approach in your research.</li>
<li>How do you include others—and who are they—when doing research? (For example, they could lead the analysis, but it’s worth getting others involved for a perspective.)</li>
<li>Do you plan the work, or are you simply a moderator?</li>
<li>Do you include others in the business in research? If so, how and why?</li>
<li>Describe a time when you led a research project.</li>
<li>What research methodologies have you taken part in or used previously? (For example, card sorting, tree testing, heuristic evaluation, cognitive walkthroughs, etc.)</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="insights-and-deliverables" tabindex="-1">Insights and deliverables<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#insights-and-deliverables"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Insights and deliverables</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>How do you visualise data?</li>
<li>How do you visualise results for designers, developers and other stakeholders?</li>
<li>Give me an example of a project you worked on where you translated research data into insights.</li>
<li>What experience do you have with videography or video deliverables?</li>
<li>How would you sell the value of user experience to a VP of product versus a VP of engineering?</li>
<li>How do you deliver research outcomes to stakeholders? (For example, do they try and get a story across; can they showcase studies?)</li>
<li>What UX deliverables have you created in the past, and how have you used them to communicate your ideas? (For example, customer journey maps, mental models, personas, etc.)</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="working-with-others" tabindex="-1">Working with others<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#working-with-others"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Working with others</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>How do you approach working with other designers (content, interaction, service and visual) and researchers?</li>
<li>How do you approach working with engineers (frontend and backend; mobile and web)?</li>
<li>Describe how you work with colleagues in other professions, such as product and engineering.</li>
<li>What best practices do you use when working with engineers?</li>
<li>What guidance have you provided to clients in the scoping of projects?</li>
<li>How do you deal with stakeholders with contrarian perspectives?</li>
<li>What do you do when a stakeholder disagrees with the results of your research?</li>
<li>What is your experience working with people who are unfamiliar with user-centred design?</li>
<li>How do you approach working with people who are unfamiliar with user-centred design?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="job-roles-and-responsibilities" tabindex="-1">Job roles and responsibilities<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#job-roles-and-responsibilities"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Job roles and responsibilities</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>What roles have you played on projects? (For example, lead versus support)</li>
<li>Describe a time where you led a project.</li>
<li>What is your experience working with recruiters?</li>
<li>What is your experience working with product and delivery managers?</li>
<li>What experience do you have scoping programmes of work?</li>
<li>What experience do you have working with and managing external research providers and vendors?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="general-job-stuff" tabindex="-1">General job stuff<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#general-job-stuff"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled General job stuff</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Are you interested in a contract or full-time work?</li>
<li>Are you open to a contract-to-hire position?</li>
<li>Are you open to travelling (the UK and international)?</li>
<li>What’s your hourly rate?</li>
<li>How do you feel about working remotely?</li>
<li>What do you know about our company, products and services?</li>
<li>Why do you want to work here?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="career-and-plans" tabindex="-1">Career and plans<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#career-and-plans"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Career and plans</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>What kind of work do you want to do?</li>
<li>Where do you want to be in 2, 5 and 10 years?</li>
<li>Why did you move into [subject area]? (For example, anthropology, user research, design, etc.)</li>
<li>Why do you want to leave your current role?</li>
<li>What are you looking for in the long term?</li>
<li>What is your ideal job?</li>
<li>What does success look like in this role?</li>
<li>How do you see this role and our company fitting into your long-term plans?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="workplace-culture" tabindex="-1">Workplace culture<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#workplace-culture"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Workplace culture</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>What are you looking for when it comes to the workplace?</li>
<li>How do you feel working for a start-up compared to a large corporation?</li>
</ul>
<p>What questions have you asked or received in interviews? What would you add to the above list? It would be great to hear from you. <a href="mailto:hello@simonwhatley.co.uk?subject=User%20experience%20and%20research%20interview%20questions">Please send me your thoughts</a>.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="further-reading" tabindex="-1">Further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/user-experience-design-research-interview-questions/#further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://anthropologizing.com/2014/11/24/user-experiencedesign-research-job-interview-questions-revised-updated/">Design research and user experience job interview questions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.impactinterview.com/2017/01/big-list-ux-interview-questions/">The big list of UX interview questions</a></li>
</ul>
What would augment reality?2017-08-09T18:28:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/<p>The technology industry is buzzing about Augmented Reality (AR) applications and hardware. In a <a href="https://twitter.com/i/events/1007314322811510785?s=12">series of illustrations</a> titled “what would augment reality?” Luke Wroblewski attempts to answer “what value would exceed the pain of charging and wearing augmented reality headsets each day?” and “Are there enough compelling use cases to make AR a daily necessity?”.</p>
<p>For each illustration, Luke assumed audio input control and gaze path/eye-tracking for object identification. With these assumptions, he applied the principle of maximum information yet minimum obstruction (MIMO) to the user interface design.</p>
<p>Luke’s high-level goal was to ‘augment’ reality: give people abilities they wouldn’t otherwise have through the inclusion of digital information and actions in the physical world.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-explain" tabindex="-1">1. “explain”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#1-explain"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. “explain”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-explain.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-explain.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: Explain the meaning of a symbol</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/884781969396998144?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-find-bathroom" tabindex="-1">2. “find bathroom”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#2-find-bathroom"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. “find bathroom”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-find-bathroom.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-find-bathroom.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 2: Show the route to the bathroom</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/885147205065211905?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-drive" tabindex="-1">3. “drive”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#3-drive"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. “drive”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-drive.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-drive.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 3: Show how your speed compares to the road’s speed limit</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/885509519748382720?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-solve" tabindex="-1">4. “solve”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#4-solve"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. “solve”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-solve.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-solve.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 4: Solve a maths problem</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/885871434987216896?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-identify" tabindex="-1">5. “identify”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#5-identify"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. “identify”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-identify-01.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-identify-01.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 5: Identify a plant or animal in the wild</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/886963584160350210?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="6-measure" tabindex="-1">6. “measure”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#6-measure"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 6. “measure”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-measure.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-measure.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 6: Measure the dimensions of an object</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/887323833757163524?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="7-convert" tabindex="-1">7. “convert”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#7-convert"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 7. “convert”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-convert.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-convert.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 7: Convert currencies and units of measurement</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/887690916936335360?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="8-check-reviews" tabindex="-1">8. “check reviews”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#8-check-reviews"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 8. “check reviews”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-check-reviews.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-check-reviews.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 8: Check what other people think of a product on sale</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/888045967190106112?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="9-check-price" tabindex="-1">9. “check price”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#9-check-price"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 9. “check price”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-check-price.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-check-price.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 9: Check the price of a product, for example petrol at a petrol station</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/888411138236399618?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="10-lose-weight" tabindex="-1">10. “lose weight”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#10-lose-weight"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 10. “lose weight”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-lose-weight.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-lose-weight.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 10: Check the calories contained in food and drink and map it to what you need to do to keep your weight under control</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/889501336462532608?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="11-listen" tabindex="-1">11. “listen”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#11-listen"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 11. “listen”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-listen.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-listen.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 11: Listen to tracks on an album you’ve picked up at the local record store</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/889874270247047168?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="12-compare" tabindex="-1">12. “compare”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#12-compare"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 12. “compare”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-compare.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-compare.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 12: Compare the quality of something like wine</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/890585572200259586?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="13-remember" tabindex="-1">13. “remember”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#13-remember"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 13. “remember”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-remember.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-remember.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 13: Add a reminder to your calendar for an event you’re interested in</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/890961585413382144?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="14-order-more" tabindex="-1">14. “order more”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#14-order-more"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 14. “order more”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-order-more.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-order-more.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 14: Add items to your shopping list or online basket</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/892034283728019456?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="15-calculate" tabindex="-1">15. “calculate”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#15-calculate"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 15. “calculate”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-calculate.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-calculate.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 15: Calculate a restaurant tip</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/892411606650441728?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="16-identify" tabindex="-1">16. “identify”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#16-identify"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 16. “identify”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-identify-02.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-identify-02.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 16: Identify an object such as a plane flying overhead</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/893124222821609481?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="17-find-keys" tabindex="-1">17. “find keys”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#17-find-keys"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 17. “find keys”</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Using object recognition and recording.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-find-keys.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-find-keys.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 17: Find where you left your keys</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/894597068353712129?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="18-magnify" tabindex="-1">18. “magnify”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#18-magnify"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 18. “magnify”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-magnify.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-magnify.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 18: Enhance small print to make it readable</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/894945984920207361?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="19-rewind" tabindex="-1">19. “rewind”<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/what-would-augment-reality/#19-rewind"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 19. “rewind”</span></a></h2></div>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-rewind.jpeg">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/what-would-augment-reality/what-would-augment-reality-rewind.jpeg" alt="" />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 19: Replay what just happened</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/LukeW/status/895320907165556738?s=20">Original tweet</a></p>
<p>What would you add to Luke’s list? It would be great to hear from you. <a href="mailto:hello@simonwhatley.co.uk?subject=What%20would%20augment%20reality">Please send me your thoughts</a>.</p>
Anticipating failure with a pre-mortem2018-06-02T08:25:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/<p>A pre-mortem is the opposite of a <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/">post-mortem</a>. A post-mortem allows the team to learn from what happened during a project. We use pre-mortems to identify everything that could go wrong before the project starts.</p>
<p>In a typical critiquing session, team members ask what <em>might</em> go wrong; a pre-mortem assumes the project <em>did</em> go wrong. Then, team members generate reasons why the failure occurred.</p>
<div class="callout"><p><strong>Overview</strong> – This activity consists of three parts:</p>
<ol>
<li>Brainstorm ideas to create an extensive list of failure scenarios your project might face from your individual and collective perspectives.</li>
<li>Fine-tuning ideas by selecting five to ten challenges that your team thinks have the most significant impact and probability.</li>
<li>Turning your ideas into action by writing up mitigation strategies for the challenges you listed as most important.</li>
</ol>
<p><strong>Run time:</strong> 60 to 90 minutes</p>
<p><strong>People:</strong> 3 to 11</p>
<p><strong>Roles needed:</strong> Facilitator, notetaker</p>
</div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="preparation" tabindex="-1">Preparation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#preparation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Preparation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Before starting the pre-mortem, there are a few things you need to prepare.</p>
<p>For remote teams, you will need a collaboration document. This document could be a <a href="https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/13IISTOPNw_DHuLhNCWPyCStdg6d06fcn_sRhQv5yoQA/edit?usp=sharing">Google spreadsheet</a> or <a href="https://trello.com/b/OtqPUc50/premortem">Trello board</a>. It doesn’t matter what you use as long as you can collaborate.</p>
<p>For in-person teams, find a meeting room, grab a whiteboard or a large roll of paper, sticky notes and marker pens.</p>
<p>On your remote collaboration document, whiteboard or paper, you will need to add the following columns:</p>
<ul>
<li>What could cause us to miss our goal or deadline?</li>
<li>What will help us meet our goal or keep our project on time?</li>
<li>What does this project need that we don’t have?</li>
<li>What do we already have that this project needs?</li>
<li>What lessons have you learned from past projects?</li>
<li>What worries you about this project?</li>
<li>What excites you about this project?</li>
<li>Other things to discuss</li>
</ul>
<p>Now you’re ready to start.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="part-1-brainstorming-ideas-30-minutes" tabindex="-1">Part 1: Brainstorming ideas (30 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#part-1-brainstorming-ideas-30-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Part 1: Brainstorming ideas (30 minutes)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Before the team starts brainstorming ideas, the facilitator needs to set the stage.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="setting-the-stage-5-minutes" tabindex="-1">Setting the stage (5 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#setting-the-stage-5-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Setting the stage (5 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Start the pre-mortem by asking the team to consider the following questions:</p>
<ul>
<li>What could go wrong with this project?</li>
<li>What could go right with this project?</li>
</ul>
<p>The meeting aims to focus only on the project, so ensure everyone in the room understands the project goals.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="individual-brainstorming-10-minutes" tabindex="-1">Individual brainstorming (10 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#individual-brainstorming-10-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Individual brainstorming (10 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Give the team ten minutes to silently write their ideas on the collaboration document or sticky notes placed under each question.</p>
<p>Ideas can be big or small. Nothing is off-limits.</p>
<p>Don’t brainstorm solutions; you will do that as a team later.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="group-similar-ideas-into-themes-15-minutes" tabindex="-1">Group similar ideas into themes (15 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#group-similar-ideas-into-themes-15-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Group similar ideas into themes (15 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Go around the team and get everyone to share their ideas.</p>
<p>New ideas are welcome at any stage; if someone hears something that sparks an idea, they should write it down and share it.</p>
<p>Work together as a team to merge similar ideas into themes. Creating themes will help when it comes to selecting ideas later.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="part-2-selecting-ideas-30-minutes" tabindex="-1">Part 2: Selecting ideas (30 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#part-2-selecting-ideas-30-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Part 2: Selecting ideas (30 minutes)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Once you have grouped your ideas into themes/challenges, select between five and ten (or more if necessary) that your team thinks have the most significant impact and probability.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="selecting-the-challenges-5-minutes" tabindex="-1">Selecting the challenges (5 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#selecting-the-challenges-5-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Selecting the challenges (5 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Use dot voting to select the challenges.</p>
<p>Ask team members to vote on the cards or sticky notes that pose the biggest threats to the project. Then, with a different coloured dot, ask the team to vote on the items going well and represent the key to the project’s success.</p>
<p>Give each team member three (or more if needed) votes. They can choose how they use their votes. For example, they can use all three votes on one card, two votes on one card and one vote on another, or one vote on three different cards.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="prioritising-the-challenges-25-minutes" tabindex="-1">Prioritising the challenges (25 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#prioritising-the-challenges-25-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Prioritising the challenges (25 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>The team should discuss the challenges as a group, considering the following questions:</p>
<ul>
<li>Which challenges should you be most worried about?</li>
<li>Which challenges are the most likely to happen?</li>
<li>Which of these challenges do you have control over?</li>
<li>Which of these challenges has the most significant negative impact?</li>
</ul>
<p>It’s worth using a <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#">prioritisation framework</a> to help the team agree during the discussion.</p>
<p>Write your challenges in a prioritised list.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="part-3-turning-ideas-into-actions-30-minutes" tabindex="-1">Part 3: Turning ideas into actions (30 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#part-3-turning-ideas-into-actions-30-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Part 3: Turning ideas into actions (30 minutes)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Now that you have a prioritised list of challenges, it’s time to develop potential solutions.</p>
<p>Use the following framework to document the challenges and how you plan to address them:</p>
<ul>
<li>Action name</li>
<li>Owner(s)</li>
<li>Priority (probability and impact)</li>
<li>Deadline</li>
<li>Outcomes or scenarios</li>
<li>Possible mitigating strategies</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="follow-up" tabindex="-1">Follow-up<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#follow-up"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Follow-up</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Don’t file the pre-mortem away in a dusty cabinet! Instead, track the actions from the pre-mortem and follow up occasionally to ensure you’re aware of the project’s risks and are actively addressing them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="further-reading" tabindex="-1">Further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/#further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li>Harvard Business Review on <a href="https://hbr.org/2007/09/performing-a-project-premortem">performing a project premortem</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.atlassian.com/team-playbook/plays/pre-mortem">How to run a project premortem</a> by Atlassian</li>
<li><a href="https://rework.withgoogle.com/guides/foster-an-innovative-workplace/steps/learn-from-failures/">Tool: Learn from failures</a> by Google</li>
</ul>
How to write problem statements2018-06-02T08:30:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-to-write-problem-statements/<p>A problem statement is an indispensable tool in any decision-making process. From setting the stage in scientific research to defining the goals of a business project, a well-articulated problem statement can serve as the guiding light that directs your thoughts and actions towards a specific end goal.</p>
<p>Below, we will delve into what a problem statement is, how to write a problem statement, and how to use problem statements effectively, with examples for clarity.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="what-is-a-problem-statement" tabindex="-1">What is a problem statement?<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-to-write-problem-statements/#what-is-a-problem-statement"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled What is a problem statement?</span></a></h2></div>
<p>A problem statement is a concise description of an issue we need to address or a condition we can improve upon. It pinpoints the gap between the current state (what is happening) and the desired state (what should be happening), providing context and direction for any team or individual attempting to address the problem.</p>
<p>For instance, a problem statement for a tech company experiencing a decrease in user engagement might be:</p>
<div class="callout override-!-margin-bottom-3"><p>“Over the past six months, there has been a 20% decrease in user engagement on our mobile app, as reflected in lower daily active users, session duration, and interaction with in-app features. This decline has significantly affected our revenue stream and customer retention rates. We need to identify and address the root causes to boost user engagement and regain our market position.”</p>
</div>
<p>This problem statement describes the issue (decrease in user engagement), specifies its impact (lower revenue and customer retention), and indicates a need for a solution.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="how-to-write-a-problem-statement" tabindex="-1">How to write a problem statement<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-to-write-problem-statements/#how-to-write-a-problem-statement"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled How to write a problem statement</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Writing an effective problem statement requires a good understanding of the problem and a structured approach. Here are the steps you can follow:</p>
<p><strong>Identify the problem</strong>: Understand and articulate the problem in your current scenario. State it in a way that is clear and easy to understand. Avoid jargon unless necessary.</p>
<p><strong>Elaborate on the problem’s impact</strong>: Demonstrate why the problem matters. State the adverse effects and implications if the problem remains unsolved.</p>
<p><strong>Specify your goals</strong>: Describe what a practical solution would look like, clarifying the desired state of affairs once you resolved the problem.</p>
<p>Here’s a problem statement for a non-profit organisation seeking to raise awareness about climate change:</p>
<div class="callout override-!-margin-bottom-3"><p>“The local community exhibits a limited understanding of the effects and severity of climate change, as evidenced by low participation rates in environmental initiatives.”</p>
<p>“This lack of awareness hinders efforts to implement sustainable practices, threatening our local environment and exacerbating global warming.”</p>
<p>“We need a comprehensive awareness program that effectively educates the community on climate change, resulting in increased participation in sustainable practices.”</p>
</div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="how-to-use-problem-statements" tabindex="-1">How to use problem statements<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/how-to-write-problem-statements/#how-to-use-problem-statements"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled How to use problem statements</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Once you have crafted a comprehensive problem statement, you can use it to guide your project or research. Here’s how:</p>
<p><strong>Guide research or project planning</strong>: The problem statement is a reference point for your research or project. It clarifies the problem your project aims to solve, helping you stay focused and on track.</p>
<p><strong>Stakeholder communication</strong>: Problem statements can be shared with stakeholders to ensure everyone understands the problem and the need for its resolution. Sharing promotes alignment and consensus.</p>
<p><strong>Measure success</strong>: You can use the problem statement to define success metrics for your project. If your actions address the issue as defined in the problem statement, your project is a success.</p>
<p>For example, consider a university seeking to reduce student dropout rates. A practical problem statement might be:</p>
<div class="callout override-!-margin-bottom-3"><p>“Despite various support systems, our university’s student dropout rate has climbed to 15% in the past academic year, primarily during the first year of study. This trend undermines our commitment to student success and lowers our overall reputation. We need a proactive approach to identify at-risk students and provide them with timely assistance to improve student retention.”</p>
</div>
<p>Using this problem statement, the university can shape a project to investigate the root causes, devise interventions, and measure the success of its initiatives against the reduction in dropout rates.</p>
<p>A problem statement is a critical tool that helps frame an issue, guide research or a project, and measure success. By understanding a problem statement, knowing how to write one effectively, and learning how to use it, you can significantly enhance your problem-solving and decision-making abilities.</p>
Learning from successes and failures with a post mortem2018-06-02T08:30:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/<p>You can’t always <a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/anticipating-failure-with-pre-mortems/">anticipate failures with pre-morterms</a>. The problem space may be continually evolving as you iterate and learn. A post-mortem is an opportunity for the team to pause, reflect and learn from their recent successes and failures.</p>
<div class="callout"><p><strong>Overview</strong> – This activity consists of two parts:</p>
<ol>
<li>Review all project stages and discuss what happened as a team.</li>
<li>Discuss what you learned from the project and what could be done differently next time.</li>
</ol>
<p><strong>Run time:</strong> 30 to 60 minutes</p>
<p><strong>People:</strong> The whole team</p>
<p><strong>Roles needed:</strong> Facilitator, notetaker</p>
</div>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="preparation" tabindex="-1">Preparation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#preparation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Preparation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Before starting the post-mortem, there are a few things you need to prepare.</p>
<p>For remote teams, you will need a collaboration document. This document could be a Google spreadsheet or Trello board. It doesn’t matter what you use as long as you can collaborate.</p>
<p>For in-person teams, find a meeting room, grab a whiteboard or a large roll of paper, sticky notes and marker pens.</p>
<p>Remind the team to approach the issues to be discussed with a <a href="https://www.brainpickings.org/2014/01/29/carol-dweck-mindset/">growth mindset</a>.</p>
<p>Create a space where people feel comfortable sharing their thoughts.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="part-1-what-happened-30-minutes" tabindex="-1">Part 1: What happened? (30 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#part-1-what-happened-30-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Part 1: What happened? (30 minutes)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Before the team starts brainstorming ideas, the facilitator needs to set the stage.</p>
<p>Start the post-mortem by asking the team to consider the following questions:</p>
<ul>
<li>What went well with this project?</li>
<li>What went wrong with this project?</li>
<li>Where did we get lucky?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="individual-brainstorming-5-minutes" tabindex="-1">Individual brainstorming (5 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#individual-brainstorming-5-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Individual brainstorming (5 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Give the team five minutes to silently write their thoughts on the collaboration document or sticky notes placed under each question.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h3 id="group-discussion-25-minutes" tabindex="-1">Group discussion (25 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#group-discussion-25-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Group discussion (25 minutes)</span></a></h3></div>
<p>Go around the team and get everyone to share their thoughts.</p>
<p>Merge similar thoughts and ideas into themes.</p>
<p>Discuss each theme, remembering to be considerate to those around you.</p>
<p>Ask lots of questions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="part-2-what-can-we-do-differently-next-time-30-minutes" tabindex="-1">Part 2: What can we do differently next time? (30 minutes)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#part-2-what-can-we-do-differently-next-time-30-minutes"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Part 2: What can we do differently next time? (30 minutes)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Work together to document what you’ve learned and develop the next steps.</p>
<p>Use the following framework to document the issues and how you plan to address them:</p>
<ul>
<li>Action name</li>
<li>Owner(s)</li>
<li>Priority (impact)</li>
<li>Deadline</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="follow-up" tabindex="-1">Follow-up<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#follow-up"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Follow-up</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Like your pre-mortem, don’t file the post-mortem away in a dusty cabinet! Instead, track the actions from the post-mortem and follow up occasionally to ensure you’re aware of any future risks and actively address them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="further-reading" tabindex="-1">Further reading<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/learning-with-post-mortems/#further-reading"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Further reading</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://rework.withgoogle.com/guides/foster-an-innovative-workplace/steps/learn-from-failures/">Tool: Learn from failures</a> by Google</li>
<li><a href="https://techbeacon.com/app-dev-testing/make-most-mistakes-best-practices-agile-retrospectives-postmortems">Make the most of mistakes: Best practices for agile retrospectives, postmortems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://rule11.tech/learning-from-the-post-mortem/">Learning from the Post-Mortem</a></li>
<li><a href="https://akfpartners.com/growth-blog/learning-from-failure-conducting-postmortems">Learning from failure: conducting postmortems</a></li>
<li><a href="https://executiveeducation.wharton.upenn.edu/thought-leadership/wharton-at-work/2020/02/forget-post-mortems-learn-from-mistakes/">Forget Post-Mortems: Here’s How to Learn from Mistakes</a></li>
</ul>
Getting to the heart of a problem with Socratic questioning2018-06-18T21:18:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/<p>Questioning is a skill, yet ambiguous and purposeless questions fill our daily lives, wasting time and not eliciting helpful information. The Socratic method solves this problem by asking focused, open-ended questions encouraging participants to reflect.</p>
<p>By surfacing knowledge previously outside our area of understanding, the technique collects valuable perspectives and helps identify courses of action.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>I know you won’t believe me, but the highest form of human excellence is to question oneself and others.<br />
—Socrates</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Socratic questioning is a form of questioning that can be used to pursue thought in many directions and for many purposes, including:</p>
<ul>
<li>to explore complex ideas</li>
<li>to get to the truth of things</li>
<li>to open up issues and problems</li>
<li>to uncover assumptions</li>
<li>to analyse concepts</li>
<li>to distinguish what we know from what we do not know</li>
<li>to follow out logical consequences of the thought</li>
<li>to control discussions</li>
</ul>
<p>Socratic questioning is systematic, disciplined, and profound and usually focuses on fundamental concepts, principles, theories, issues or problems.</p>
<p>Using a series of focused yet open questions, we can unpack our beliefs and those of others.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="using-socratic-questioning" tabindex="-1">Using Socratic questioning<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#using-socratic-questioning"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Using Socratic questioning</span></a></h2></div>
<p>It takes time to learn and use the Socratic method. Preparation is important.</p>
<ul>
<li>Collate questions that provide meaning and direction in the conversation</li>
<li>Use ‘wait time’, allowing participants to compose their thoughts before responding</li>
<li>Follow-up on participants’ responses with further questions</li>
<li>Ask probing questions that elicit more information</li>
<li>Periodically summarise critical points that participants have discussed</li>
<li>Let participants discover things on their own through the probing questions you ask</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="types-of-socratic-questions" tabindex="-1">Types of Socratic questions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#types-of-socratic-questions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Types of Socratic questions</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The Socratic questioning technique involves different types of questions that we can group into the following themes:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#clarifying-thinking">Clarifying thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#challenging-assumptions">Challenging assumptions</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#using-evidence-in-arguments">Using evidence in arguments</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#exploring-alternative-perspectives">Exploring alternative perspectives</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#considering-the-consequences">Considering the consequences</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#questioning-the-question">Questioning the question</a></li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="clarifying-thinking" tabindex="-1">Clarifying thinking<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#clarifying-thinking"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Clarifying thinking</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Get participants to think more about what exactly they are asking or thinking. Ask them to prove the concepts behind their answer or argument. Use basic tell me more questions that get them to go deeper.</p>
<ul>
<li>What do you think is the main issue?</li>
<li>Why do you say that?</li>
<li>Could you explain further?</li>
<li>What do you mean by ______?</li>
<li>How does this relate to what we have been talking about?</li>
<li>What do we already know about this?</li>
<li>Can you give me an example?</li>
<li>Are you saying ______ or ______?</li>
<li>Can you restate that with more clarity and precision?</li>
<li>How do you feel about this?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="challenging-assumptions" tabindex="-1">Challenging assumptions<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#challenging-assumptions"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Challenging assumptions</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Challenging participants’ assumptions leads them to think about the presuppositions and unquestioned beliefs they are founding their answer.</p>
<ul>
<li>Is this always the case?</li>
<li>What assumptions have you made here?</li>
<li>Why would ______ make this assumption?</li>
<li>Do all ______ think like this?</li>
<li>You are assuming ______?</li>
<li>What religious beliefs might you be basing your argument on?</li>
<li>How can you verify or disprove that assumption?</li>
<li>What exceptions are there to this?</li>
<li>Please explain why/how?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="using-evidence-in-arguments" tabindex="-1">Using evidence in arguments<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#using-evidence-in-arguments"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Using evidence in arguments</span></a></h2></div>
<p>When participants give a rationale for their arguments, dig into that reasoning and challenge unthought-through or weakly understood ideas.</p>
<ul>
<li>What evidence do you have for this?</li>
<li>Is there reason to doubt this evidence?</li>
<li>How do you know this?</li>
<li>Why do you think this is true?</li>
<li>Can you support this with a reasoned argument?</li>
<li>What would be an example?</li>
<li>What teachings would support this?</li>
<li>By what reasoning did you come to that conclusion?</li>
<li>Are these reasons good enough?</li>
<li>How might it be refuted?</li>
<li>On what authority are you basing your argument?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="exploring-alternative-perspectives" tabindex="-1">Exploring alternative perspectives<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#exploring-alternative-perspectives"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Exploring alternative perspectives</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Most arguments are from a particular position, so attack that position. Show that there are other, equally valid viewpoints.</p>
<ul>
<li>How else could you answer this?</li>
<li>What is the counter-argument?</li>
<li>What is an alternative?</li>
<li>What are you implying by that?</li>
<li>Who might see this differently? Why?</li>
<li>Another view is ______. Does this seem reasonable to you?</li>
<li>How might ______ answer this?</li>
<li>What is the difference between ______ and ______?</li>
<li>Why is this ______ better than ______?</li>
<li>What are the strengths and weaknesses of ______?</li>
<li>How are ______ and ______ ideas alike? How are they different?</li>
<li>What might someone who believed ______ think?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="considering-the-consequences" tabindex="-1">Considering the consequences<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#considering-the-consequences"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Considering the consequences</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The argument that participants give may have logical implications that can be forecast. Do these make sense? Are they desirable?</p>
<ul>
<li>Then what would happen?</li>
<li>What would happen if everyone did/believed this?</li>
<li>What would happen if ______ didn’t do this?</li>
<li>What would happen if ______ happened?</li>
<li>What are the implications of ______?</li>
<li>How does ______ affect ______?</li>
<li>How does ______ fit with what we learned before?</li>
<li>Why is ______ important?</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="questioning-the-question" tabindex="-1">Questioning the question<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/socratic-questioning/#questioning-the-question"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Questioning the question</span></a></h2></div>
<p>And you can also get reflexive about the whole thing, turning the question in on itself. Use participants’ attacks against themselves.</p>
<ul>
<li>What was the point of asking that question?</li>
<li>Why is this question important?</li>
<li>Why do you think I asked this question?</li>
<li>Am I making sense? Why not?</li>
<li>What else might I ask?</li>
<li>What does that mean?</li>
<li>What other questions could I ask?</li>
</ul>
<p>By using Socratic questioning, we can promote independent thinking in our participants. It is an effective way to explore ideas in depth and can be used in many situations, from product development to teaching in the classroom.</p>
<p>Have you used Socratic questioning in your work? <a href="mailto:hello@simonwhatley.co.uk?subject=Socratic%20questioning">It would be great to hear about your experiences</a>.</p>
Building a register of public-facing services at the Ministry of Justice2019-06-06T10:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/<p>The Ministry of Justice is made up of over <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations#ministry-of-justice">30 agencies and public bodies</a>. From Her Majesty’s Courts and Tribunals Service (HMCTS) to the Prison and Probation Ombudsman. The department delivers a wide range of justice-related information services to complex and widely used public services such as ‘Get a divorce’, ‘Apply for probate’ or ‘Apply for legal aid’.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="the-task" tabindex="-1">The task<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/#the-task"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled The task</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Earlier this year, a Central Digital project team in Ministry of Justice Digital & Technology set out to list all of the many transactional and information-based services that the Ministry of Justice provides to the public. The intention was to gain a proper overview of everything the department offered to the general public.</p>
<p>We listed all the services in their relevant organisations and then categorised them into four main groups:</p>
<ul>
<li>whether the service is digital by default*</li>
<li>not digital by default</li>
<li>is an information service</li>
<li>or is a paper-based service</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="how-were-using-the-data" tabindex="-1">How we’re using the data<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/#how-were-using-the-data"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled How we’re using the data</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The idea was to fully understand the scope of the citizen-facing services the Ministry of Justice provides and to support how we prioritise the things we work on and make sure our central strategy is aligned with developing products and services that better serve the general public.</p>
<p>It will also help the department to look across the services it provides and not to look at products in isolation. It will then over time provide a useful means of how we audit the progress of what still needs to be done in terms of transforming the services that the department provides and gaining a better understanding of end-to-end services across policy areas and different departments. Government Digital Service (GDS) have recently published guidance on publishing a list of services.</p>
<p>We have called it the <a href="https://moj-register-of-services.herokuapp.com/">Register of Public-Facing Services</a>.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/moj-register-of-public-facing-services.png">
<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/moj-register-of-public-facing-services.png" alt="Screenshot of the MoJ register of public-facing services website." />
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: The MoJ register of public-facing services.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<p>The data provides an example of the challenges facing government departments looking to prioritise and transform the digitisation of their long tails of information and paper-based services in the complexity of a fast moving political and economic landscape.</p>
<p>Ministry of Justice currently has around 226 public-facing services of which:</p>
<ul>
<li>27 are ‘digital by default’</li>
<li>27 are not digital by default (meaning they provide a digital service but that it is not digital by default according to the GOV.UK Service Standard)</li>
<li>40 are services providing information related to justice</li>
<li>134 PDF or Word forms that users have to download, print, complete, and then fax or post in</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="moving-forward" tabindex="-1">Moving forward<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/#moving-forward"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Moving forward</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Even with the scale of the task of turning such a backlog of paper-based services into digital services, digital transformation must always balance proper service design, the understanding of qualitative and quantitative user data and departmental policy and business prioritisation, with digitising services at scale and at pace. A truly inclusive and accessible justice system is too important for us to still be wrestling with online PDFs in five years’ time.</p>
<p>*By <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/government-digital-strategy/government-digital-strategy">digital by default</a> we mean digital services that are so straightforward and convenient that all those who can use them will choose to do so whilst those who can’t are not excluded</p>
<!-- <figure class="app-figure">
<a class="app-image" href="/content/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/moj-register-of-public-facing-services-digital-by-default.png">
<img src="/content/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/moj-register-of-public-facing-services-digital-by-default.png" alt="Screenshot of the MoJ register of public-facing services website showing the digital by default services list.">
</a>
<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 2: Digital by default services at the MoJ.</p>
</figcaption>
</figure>
<figure class="app-figure">
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<img src="/content/writing/building-a-register-of-public-facing-services-at-moj/moj-register-of-public-facing-services-not-digital-by-default.png" alt="Screenshot of the MoJ register of public-facing services website showing the not digital by default services list.">
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<p>Figure 3: Not digital by default services at the MoJ.</p>
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<p>Figure 4: Information sites at the MoJ.</p>
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<p>Figure 5: Paper-based services at the MoJ.</p>
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Introducing the Ministry of Justice design system2019-08-16T10:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/introducing-the-moj-design-system/<blockquote>
<p>A design system unites product teams around a common visual language. It reduces design and technical debt, accelerates the design and development process, and builds bridges between teams working in concert to bring products to life.<br />
—<a href="https://maximerabot.com/">Maxime Rabot</a></p>
</blockquote>
<figure class="app-figure">
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<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/introducing-the-moj-design-system/moj-design-system.png" alt="Screenshot of the MoJ Design System website." />
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<figcaption class="app-figure__caption">
<p>Figure 1: The MoJ Design System website.</p>
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<p>Most teams in MoJ Digital & Technology have heard of, reference or use the <a href="https://design-system.service.gov.uk/">GOV.UK Design System</a> daily. GOV.UK has an instantly recognisable design language. It sets the standard for how we design services across government.</p>
<p>Services on GOV.UK are the most visible part of digital teams’ work in government, but departments also deliver many services for government staff that sit outside GOV.UK, such as casework systems and other staff-facing services. For these services, the design language available to designers is not as sharp or clearly defined.</p>
<p>At MoJ Digital & Technology when designing staff and provider-facing services, designers always start with the GOV.UK Design System but may have to design and develop alternative patterns and components to satisfy specific user needs.</p>
<p>We have reached a tipping point where designers and developers are creating new patterns and components for government staff facing services. With this, there is a recognised need to establish uniform guidance. We need to lay the foundations for a more consistent experience that teams can build upon over time. Services, whether public or internal, should inspire confidence and trust, and meet the highest accessibility and usability standards.</p>
<p>With the creation of new patterns and components, there is a need to manage them effectively: helping emerging patterns to mature through use and improvement; providing peer review from the MoJ design team; building up a body of user research evidence; to ultimately making a recommendation for inclusion in the GOV.UK Design System.</p>
<p>We’re laying the foundations for a more consistent experience: services, whether public or internal, which inspire confidence and meet the highest accessibility and usability standards.</p>
<p>The best way to do this is to create an <a href="https://moj-design-system.herokuapp.com/">MoJ Design System</a> which builds on the design patterns, components and research evidence in the GOV.UK Design System. The purpose of the MoJ Design System is to extend, not re-invent or replace the GOV.UK Design System. It serves as a central repository for patterns and components in use at MoJ Digital & Technology. In time, patterns and components that we develop will be passed upstream into the core GOV.UK Design System.</p>
<p>Similar initiatives are underway at the HMCTS Reform, Home Office, HMRC and most other government departments and by collaborating with them, we are laying the foundations for reuse at scale.</p>
<figure class="app-figure">
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<p>Figure 2: The MoJ Design System components section.</p>
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<p>Figure 3: The MoJ Design System patterns section.</p>
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<img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/introducing-the-moj-design-system/moj-design-system-community.png" alt="Screenshot of the MoJ Design System community section." />
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<p>Figure 4: The MoJ Design System community section.</p>
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Getting things done with the Pomodoro Technique2022-03-10T19:53:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/getting-things-done-with-the-pomodoro-technique/<p>The Pomodoro Technique, created by <a href="https://francescocirillo.com/pages/pomodoro-technique">Francesco Cirillo</a>, is a productivity system that helps you stop procrastinating or getting distracted, allowing you to focus on getting stuff done.</p>
<p>The technique is made up of a few simple steps:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><strong>Decide what to work on</strong><br />
Tasks should take about 25-minutes to complete. Larger pieces of work should be split into smaller, manageable chunks.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Set a timer for 25 minutes</strong><br />
Start working, and don’t stop until the timer rings. Ignore all interruptions, including emails, texts, and other notifications—or silence them before starting. ‘Do not disturb’ is your friend.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>When the timer rings, you’ve finished one Pomodoro</strong><br />
This is your chance to take a 5-minute break. Set your timer, take a walk, check social media and do all the things you aren’t allowed to do during work.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>After every four Pomodoros, take an extended break</strong><br />
Take a longer (15 to 30-minute) break, depending on how good you’re feeling.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The Pomodoro Technique is incredibly simple and effective. The 25-minute work session is long enough for you to stay focused, while the frequent 5-minute breaks give you a chance to unwind without disrupting your work.</p>
The paradox of simplicity in service design2023-10-27T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-paradox-of-simplicity-in-service-design/<p>The most straightforward service designs often have the most intricate thought processes behind them.</p>
<p>The paradox of simplicity refers to the idea that making services simple and intuitive for users often requires a significant amount of behind-the-scenes complexity and effort. At its core, this paradox highlights the tension between the desire for streamlined, easy-to-use services and the intricate design work necessary to produce such experiences.</p>
<p>Here’s a breakdown of the paradox:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="user-expectation-for-simplicity" tabindex="-1">User expectation for simplicity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-paradox-of-simplicity-in-service-design/#user-expectation-for-simplicity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled User expectation for simplicity</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Users expect services to be straightforward to use. This expectation is partly driven by the success of companies like Apple, which places a strong emphasis on user-centered design and simplicity.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="behind-the-scenes-complexity" tabindex="-1">Behind-the-scenes complexity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-paradox-of-simplicity-in-service-design/#behind-the-scenes-complexity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Behind-the-scenes complexity</span></a></h2></div>
<p>To achieve this outward simplicity, a great deal of complexity often lies beneath the surface. This might involve intricate processes, technology, or organisational structures that are hidden from the end-user but are essential to delivering a seamless experience.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="design-effort" tabindex="-1">Design effort<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-paradox-of-simplicity-in-service-design/#design-effort"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Design effort</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Achieving simplicity is not a matter of merely stripping away features or elements. It requires a deep understanding of users’ needs and carefully crafting the service journey to ensure that every touchpoint is intuitive and adds value. This design effort can be resource-intensive and time-consuming.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="iterative-process" tabindex="-1">Iterative process<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-paradox-of-simplicity-in-service-design/#iterative-process"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Iterative process</span></a></h2></div>
<p>True simplicity in service design is often achieved through iteration. Feedback loops, testing, and refinements are critical. What might seem simple in theory can prove confusing or cumbersome, so designers must be prepared to adjust and iterate based on real-world feedback.</p>
<p>The paradox of simplicity reminds us that while users appreciate and expect simple interactions, achieving this simplicity is a challenging task. It requires a deep commitment to understanding user needs and a willingness to invest in the intricate design and systems needed to meet those needs seamlessly.</p>
Important Metrics: How to quantify success in service design2023-10-28T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/important-metrics-how-to-quantify-success-in-service-design/<p>Quantifying success in service design isn’t just beneficial—it’s crucial.</p>
<p>Service design is pivotal in ensuring that the experiences and services delivered to customers are effective, efficient, and enjoyable. As the adage goes, “What gets measured gets managed.” So, it’s essential to identify the right metrics to quantify the success of your design.</p>
<p>Here are some key metrics that can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of your service design:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="customer-effort-score-ces" tabindex="-1">Customer Effort Score (CES)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/important-metrics-how-to-quantify-success-in-service-design/#customer-effort-score-ces"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Customer Effort Score (CES)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This metric determines how easy it was for customers to interact with your service. The logic is simple: the easier a service is to use, the more likely customers will continue using it.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="first-contact-resolution-fcr" tabindex="-1">First Contact Resolution (FCR)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/important-metrics-how-to-quantify-success-in-service-design/#first-contact-resolution-fcr"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled First Contact Resolution (FCR)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This measures the percentage of customer issues that are resolved upon first contact. A high FCR indicates that your service design effectively addresses customer needs without requiring multiple interactions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="service-error-rate" tabindex="-1">Service error rate<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/important-metrics-how-to-quantify-success-in-service-design/#service-error-rate"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Service error rate</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Track the number of mistakes or errors in service delivery. A decrease in service errors over time can indicate improved service design.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="completion-rate" tabindex="-1">Completion rate<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/important-metrics-how-to-quantify-success-in-service-design/#completion-rate"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Completion rate</span></a></h2></div>
<p>For services with a specific journey or process, such as online forms or checkouts, the completion rate measures how many users successfully finish the journey versus those who drop out.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="time-to-resolution-ttr" tabindex="-1">Time-to-Resolution (TTR)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/important-metrics-how-to-quantify-success-in-service-design/#time-to-resolution-ttr"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Time-to-Resolution (TTR)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This is the average time taken to resolve customer issues. A decrease in this metric over time can indicate that your service design improvements lead to faster problem resolution.</p>
<p>While numbers can offer valuable insights, always approach them with context. It’s crucial to understand the story behind the numbers. Pair quantitative metrics with qualitative insights, keep iterating, and let data and empathy guide your service design.</p>
Navigating 2024: Important service design trends you should be thinking about2023-10-29T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/<p>As the world catapults into 2024, the landscape of service design is pulsating with innovation and transformation.</p>
<p>Shaped by technological advancements, changing consumer preferences, and an evolving global consciousness, the way we conceive and deliver services is undergoing a paradigm shift. These emerging trends are not just fleeting fads; they reflect deeper societal needs and desires, setting the tone for the next era of service design.</p>
<p>Here are some of the most influential trends to integrate into your design strategy:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="digital-physical-blending" tabindex="-1">Digital-physical blending<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#digital-physical-blending"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Digital-physical blending</span></a></h2></div>
<p>With <abbr title="Augmented reality">AR</abbr>, <abbr title="Virtual reality">VR</abbr>, and mixed-reality technologies becoming more integrated, service providers are increasingly creating blended experiences. This allows consumers to interact with services in both the physical and digital realm, crafting richer and more immersive experiences.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="sustainability-centric-designs" tabindex="-1">Sustainability-centric designs<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#sustainability-centric-designs"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Sustainability-centric designs</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In a world grappling with environmental challenges, services that incorporate sustainability not just as an add-on but as a core component are standing out. Whether it’s eco-friendly packaging, carbon-neutral deliveries, or promoting shared resources, sustainability is no longer a luxury but a necessity.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="hyper-personalisation" tabindex="-1">Hyper-personalisation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#hyper-personalisation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Hyper-personalisation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Using AI and big data, service design is becoming deeply personalised. This means services that adjust in real-time to users’ needs, moods, and preferences, offering tailor-made experiences that increase user satisfaction and loyalty.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="emphasis-on-mental-health" tabindex="-1">Emphasis on mental health<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#emphasis-on-mental-health"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Emphasis on mental health</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In a post-pandemic world, mental health has taken the forefront. Services are being designed with mental well-being in mind, whether it’s platforms offering stress relief, companies integrating wellness days, or digital tools promoting mindfulness.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="remote-first" tabindex="-1">Remote first<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#remote-first"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Remote first</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Even as the world moves towards normalcy, the ‘remote first’ trend isn’t slowing down. Services are being crafted assuming users prefer a remote or hybrid option, ensuring accessibility from anywhere.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="inclusive-design" tabindex="-1">Inclusive design<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#inclusive-design"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Inclusive design</span></a></h2></div>
<p>There’s a growing emphasis on designing services for everyone. This means considering the needs of diverse populations, including those with disabilities, to ensure that services are universally accessible and usable.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="blockchain-integrated-services" tabindex="-1">Blockchain-integrated services<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#blockchain-integrated-services"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Blockchain-integrated services</span></a></h2></div>
<p>From finance to supply chain, blockchain integration ensures transparency, security, and decentralised control. It’s creating trust in ways previously impossible.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="experience-over-transaction" tabindex="-1">Experience over transaction<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#experience-over-transaction"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Experience over transaction</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Users are looking for experiences, not just transactions. Whether it’s shopping, banking, or learning, the journey is as vital as the destination. Service design now prioritises crafting memorable experiences over simple transactional interactions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="ethics-and-transparency" tabindex="-1">Ethics and transparency<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/navigating-2024-important-service-design-trends-you-should-be-thinking-about/#ethics-and-transparency"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Ethics and transparency</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Users want to trust the services they use. Designing with a focus on clear ethical guidelines and transparent operations ensures that trust is built and maintained.</p>
<p>These trends are more than passing inclinations; they represent a collective aspiration for a more inclusive, efficient, and meaningful tomorrow. They emphasise the marriage of technology with human-centric design, all while ensuring sustainability, ethics, and universal accessibility.</p>
Stickdorn & Schneider’s 5 principles of service design thinking2023-10-30T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/stickdorn-and-schneiders-5-principles-of-service-design/<p>Marc Stickdorn and Jakob Schnieder’s book “<a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/This-Service-Design-Thinking-Basics/dp/906369279X/">This is Service Design Thinking</a>” offers foundational insights into service design.</p>
<p>The book introduces five key principles that underpin service design thinking:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="1-user-centred" tabindex="-1">1. User-centred<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/stickdorn-and-schneiders-5-principles-of-service-design/#1-user-centred"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 1. User-centred</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This principle emphasises the need to focus on all users affected by the service. Instead of just designing for the end consumer, service design thinking considers everyone involved, including front-line staff, managers, and third-party vendors. The objective is to create a service that meets the needs and expectations of all these users.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="2-co-creative" tabindex="-1">2. Co-creative<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/stickdorn-and-schneiders-5-principles-of-service-design/#2-co-creative"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 2. Co-creative</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Service design is a collaborative process, often involving various stakeholders, including end-users, in the design process. Co-creation ensures that all voices are heard, and solutions are crafted considering diverse needs and viewpoints. This collaboration can lead to more innovative, practical, and accepted solutions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="3-sequencing" tabindex="-1">3. Sequencing<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/stickdorn-and-schneiders-5-principles-of-service-design/#3-sequencing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 3. Sequencing</span></a></h2></div>
<p>A service is often perceived as a sequence of interrelated actions or events. Service design visualises this as a “service blueprint” or “customer journey map,” which lays out the service process step by step, from the customer’s first interaction to the last. By sequencing, designers can identify pain points, opportunities, and touchpoints in the service process.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="4-evidencing" tabindex="-1">4. Evidencing<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/stickdorn-and-schneiders-5-principles-of-service-design/#4-evidencing"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 4. Evidencing</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Intangible services are made tangible through physical artefacts. For instance, a boarding pass makes the service of air travel concrete, or an app interface embodies the service of online banking. By making the intangible tangible, customers can understand, evaluate, and appreciate the service better.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="5-holistic" tabindex="-1">5. Holistic<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/stickdorn-and-schneiders-5-principles-of-service-design/#5-holistic"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled 5. Holistic</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Service design thinking takes a holistic view of all the related components of a service. This means looking at the entire environment where the service exists, from the more extensive ecosystem to the minutiae of individual touchpoints. By doing so, designers can ensure that the whole service experience is cohesive and consistent and delivers value to the user.</p>
3 simple (but effective) pieces of advice for anyone starting out in service design2023-10-31T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/3-simple-but-effective-pieces-of-advice-for-anyone-starting-out-in-service-design/<p>Have you ever wondered what separates successful service designers from those who stumble?</p>
<p>If you’re starting out in service design, here are three simple yet effective pieces of advice:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="empathise-with-your-users" tabindex="-1">Empathise with your users<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/3-simple-but-effective-pieces-of-advice-for-anyone-starting-out-in-service-design/#empathise-with-your-users"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Empathise with your users</span></a></h2></div>
<p>The heart of service design is understanding the people who will use the service. Spend time with your users, listen to their needs, observe their behaviours, and immerse yourself in their world. This will allow you to design services that truly resonate with them.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="prototype-and-iterate" tabindex="-1">Prototype and iterate<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/3-simple-but-effective-pieces-of-advice-for-anyone-starting-out-in-service-design/#prototype-and-iterate"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Prototype and iterate</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Service design is not about creating a perfect solution on the first attempt. Instead, it’s about prototyping potential solutions quickly, testing them in real-world settings, gathering feedback, and iterating based on that feedback.</p>
<p>This approach reduces the risk of investing time and resources into a solution that might not work. Think of your designs as hypotheses to be tested, and be ready to adjust based on what you learn.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="collaborate-across-disciplines" tabindex="-1">Collaborate across disciplines<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/3-simple-but-effective-pieces-of-advice-for-anyone-starting-out-in-service-design/#collaborate-across-disciplines"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Collaborate across disciplines</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Service design often involves weaving together touchpoints across digital and physical realms, requiring input from various disciplines. Foster a culture of collaboration where team members from different backgrounds can contribute their expertise.</p>
<p>Lastly, always stay curious. The field of service design is evolving, and the best practitioners continuously learn, adapt, and seek out new methods and tools to improve their craft.</p>
CARDS, the secret sauce that separates the best from the brilliant2023-11-02T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/cards-the-secret-sauce-that-separates-the-best-from-the-brilliant/<p>CARDS originates in the world of Rugby and describes the most important skills for the players to work on on and off the field.</p>
<p>The acronym stands for:</p>
<ul>
<li>Creativity</li>
<li>Awareness</li>
<li>Resilience</li>
<li>Decision-making</li>
<li>Self-organisation</li>
</ul>
<p>How can you apply CARDS in your day-to-day work?</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="creativity" tabindex="-1">Creativity<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/cards-the-secret-sauce-that-separates-the-best-from-the-brilliant/#creativity"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Creativity</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Creativity is the skill to devise different solutions to the same problem. It’s about exploring and trying new things.</p>
<p>You don’t have to stick to the same ways of working we’ve done in the past.</p>
<p>You need to explore new ways to be the best you can be.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="awareness" tabindex="-1">Awareness<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/cards-the-secret-sauce-that-separates-the-best-from-the-brilliant/#awareness"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Awareness</span></a></h2></div>
<p>For individuals to fully achieve their potential, they need good awareness.</p>
<p>Good awareness helps with decision-making.</p>
<p>Awareness is another word for information. To have good awareness, your job is to be as informed as possible.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="resilience" tabindex="-1">Resilience<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/cards-the-secret-sauce-that-separates-the-best-from-the-brilliant/#resilience"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Resilience</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Resilience is the ability to adapt under pressure.</p>
<p>By working outside your comfort zone, you become more resilient to your challenges.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="decision-making" tabindex="-1">Decision-making<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/cards-the-secret-sauce-that-separates-the-best-from-the-brilliant/#decision-making"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Decision-making</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Decision-making is intertwined with awareness and creativity.</p>
<p>The fastest and easiest way to get things done is to give people the answers. However, real learning comes from exploring and finding the best way forward.</p>
<p>Having the correct information and creativity allows you to make good decisions.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="self-organisation" tabindex="-1">Self-organisation<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/cards-the-secret-sauce-that-separates-the-best-from-the-brilliant/#self-organisation"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Self-organisation</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Self-organisation is about problem-solving.</p>
<p>Rather than sticking to rigid structures, use information, creativity and the team around you to self-organise.</p>
<p>Self-organisation leads to greater efficiency and effectiveness.</p>
<p>Applying the CARDS framework can help you align your personal goals with broader organisational goals, ultimately contributing to your success and your teams.</p>
The difference between systems thinking and design thinking2023-11-03T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-difference-between-systems-thinking-and-design-thinking/<p>Systems thinking and design thinking are two distinct methodologies often used in problem-solving, innovation, and addressing complex issues.</p>
<p>While they share some similarities in that both are holistic and non-linear ways of looking at problems, they have different focuses and approaches.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="systems-thinking" tabindex="-1">Systems Thinking<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-difference-between-systems-thinking-and-design-thinking/#systems-thinking"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Systems Thinking</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><strong>Holistic view</strong>: Systems thinking is an analytical approach that focuses on understanding the complex interrelationships within systems. It looks at the whole system, including its various parts and how they interact with each other.</li>
<li><strong>Interconnectedness and feedback</strong>: It emphasises the importance of feedback loops, delays, and non-linear relationships within a system. The goal is to understand how changes in one part of the system affect the whole.</li>
<li><strong>Root causes</strong>: This approach seeks to identify and address the underlying problems that cause patterns of behaviour rather than reacting to individual events.</li>
<li><strong>Dynamic complexity</strong>: Systems thinking is often applied in situations characterised by dynamic complexity, where the same action can have dramatically different effects in the short run and the long run.</li>
<li><strong>Patterns and trends</strong>: Systems thinkers look for patterns and trends to make better decisions and create more effective interventions within a system.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="design-thinking" tabindex="-1">Design Thinking<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-difference-between-systems-thinking-and-design-thinking/#design-thinking"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Design Thinking</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><strong>Human-centric</strong>: Design thinking is a creative approach that focuses on understanding the needs and experiences of people. It is often used to solve complex problems by designing products, services, or experiences from the user’s perspective.</li>
<li><strong>Prototyping and iteration</strong>: It involves a cycle of ideation, prototyping, testing, and refining based on user feedback. This iterative process helps in developing solutions that are desirable, feasible, and viable.</li>
<li><strong>Empathy</strong>: An essential element of design thinking is empathy, which involves understanding the emotional experience of the user to tailor solutions specifically to their needs.</li>
<li><strong>Problem framing</strong>: Design thinking encourages re-framing the problem in human-centric ways, generating many ideas, and exploring a wide solution space before converging on a final solution.</li>
<li><strong>Cross-disciplinary collaboration</strong>: It often involves multidisciplinary teams to bring in diverse perspectives and foster creativity in solving problems.</li>
</ul>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="comparison-and-interplay" tabindex="-1">Comparison and interplay<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/the-difference-between-systems-thinking-and-design-thinking/#comparison-and-interplay"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Comparison and interplay</span></a></h2></div>
<ul>
<li><strong>Process</strong>: Systems thinking involves understanding and modelling the system, often using causal loop diagrams, while design thinking uses tools like personas, journey maps, and rapid prototyping.</li>
<li><strong>Focus</strong>: Systems thinking is more focused on the systemic issues and interdependencies within the system, while design thinking is focused on the human experience and meeting user needs.</li>
<li><strong>Outcome</strong>: The outcome of systems thinking is often a deep understanding of the system that can lead to strategic interventions, whereas design thinking aims to produce innovative, user-centred solutions.</li>
<li><strong>Application</strong>: Systems thinking can be applied at any scale, from ecosystems to organisations, while design thinking is often used for specific products, services, or experiences.</li>
</ul>
<p>The two approaches can complement each other.</p>
<p>Systems thinking can provide insights into the broader system in which a design thinking initiative takes place, ensuring that solutions fit into larger ecological, economic, and social systems.</p>
<p>Conversely, design thinking can provide a human-centred lens that ensures systems thinking approaches meet the needs of the stakeholders involved.</p>
10 unconventional, counterintuitive or unique service design principles2023-11-04T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/10-unconventional-counterintuitive-or-unique-service-design-principles/<p>Traditional service design principles don’t always apply.</p>
<p>Some principles may deviate from traditional best practices to create a distinctive user experience, foster brand loyalty, or differentiate from competitors.</p>
<p>Here are 10 that break the mould:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><strong>Deliberate inefficiency</strong><br />
Services might intentionally slow down a process to enhance the experience. For example, a gourmet restaurant may deliberately slow the pace of a meal to create a more luxurious, relaxed atmosphere.</p>
<p>Example: Some luxury tea houses or coffee shops take their time to prepare your drink traditionally, using slower methods than modern alternatives. The idea is to appreciate the craft and the experience, such as Japanese tea ceremonies.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Controlled friction</strong><br />
Adding steps to a service that customers must follow might seem counterproductive, but it can increase perceived value or satisfaction. For instance, having customers participate in creating a product or service (like build-your-own meal kits) can increase engagement.</p>
<p>Example: IKEA is known for requiring customers to assemble their furniture. This <abbr title="Do It Yourself">DIY</abbr> approach adds a step for customers but also allows IKEA to reduce costs and gives customers a sense of accomplishment.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Purposeful exclusivity</strong><br />
Making a service more challenging to access can increase its allure. Some high-end services cultivate an aura of exclusivity by being invitation-only or requiring customers to join a waiting list.</p>
<p>Example: High-end brands like Supreme or luxury car manufacturers often release products in limited quantities to create a sense of exclusivity and demand.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Erratic reward systems</strong><br />
Instead of consistent rewards, some services design their loyalty programs to offer random or surprise rewards, which can create a sense of excitement and unpredictability.</p>
<p>Example: The gaming industry, especially in mobile games, often uses randomised rewards (loot boxes) to incentivise players to continue playing without guaranteeing consistent rewards.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Transparency extremes</strong><br />
Sharing more information than necessary, such as live-streaming the behind-the-scenes work, can make customers feel more connected to the service process and the brand.</p>
<p>Example: Everlane, a clothing company, is known for its radical transparency, disclosing the costs of materials, labour, and transportation for each item, as well as the markup they take.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Imperfect by design</strong><br />
Some services might intentionally include imperfections or signs of “humanness” to create a more authentic and relatable user experience.</p>
<p>Example: Handmade goods marketplaces like Etsy thrive on the idea that the slight imperfections of handmade items are desirable because they make each product unique and show that humans, not machines, made them.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Selective inconvenience</strong><br />
Certain services may be inconvenient in one aspect to highlight their excellence in another. For example, a retailer might have longer delivery times but offer exceptional customisation options.</p>
<p>Example: Zara deliberately limits the number of each clothing design sent to stores to create a sense of urgency among buyers. If you don’t buy now, the item might not be available later.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Managed discomfort</strong><br />
In some wellness or educational services, discomfort is part of the experience. A boot camp may be gruelling to reflect the program’s intensity.</p>
<p>Example: Tough Mudder or Spartan Race events are obstacle courses designed to be physically challenging. Participants expect and appreciate the difficulty as part of the transformative experience.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>One thing at a time</strong><br />
While we may see multitasking as efficient, some service designs force a single-threaded approach to ensure deep focus and quality, such as a spa prohibiting electronic devices.</p>
<p>Example: Some fine-dining restaurants serve multi-course meals with a “no phones” policy to ensure guests are fully immersed in the dining experience, focusing on one dish at a time without distractions.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Randomised journey</strong><br />
Instead of a linear service journey, some services may introduce elements of randomness where customers have different paths or experiences, which can feel more personalised.</p>
<p>Example: Certain travel companies specialise in mystery vacations, where travellers only know the destination once they arrive at the airport. Each trip is unique, with surprises adding to the adventure.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>These principles, when integrated thoughtfully into service design, have helped businesses create memorable and unique experiences that resonate with their customers and differentiate them from competitors.</p>
Pace layers and how they apply to design2023-11-05T12:00:00Zhttps://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/<p>Understanding pace layers is crucial for designers aiming to create products that endure and evolve.</p>
<p>Pace layering is a concept developed by Stewart Brand in his book “<a href="https://www.amazon.co.uk/Clock-Long-Now-Time-Responsibility/dp/046504512X/">The Clock of the Long Now</a>”. The idea is that in a complex system (like society, an ecosystem, or a business context), different layers move at different paces, from fast to slow.</p>
<p><img src="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/content/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/pace-layers.png" alt="Image showing Stewart Brand’s 6 pace layers: fashion/art, commerce, infrastructure, governance, culture, and nature, each moving slower than the previous one" /></p>
<p>Brand identified six layers: fashion/art, commerce, infrastructure, governance, culture, and nature, each moving slower than the previous one. The slower layers help maintain stability, while the faster layers promote innovation.</p>
<p>Applying the concept of pace layers to design, particularly within service or product design, can help create solutions that are both innovative and stable.</p>
<p>Here’s how each pace layer could potentially apply to design:</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="fashionart-fast" tabindex="-1">Fashion/Art (Fast)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/#fashionart-fast"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Fashion/Art (Fast)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This is the layer of design that is most subject to change and trends. It’s about experimentation and what’s visually or functionally “in”. In design, this could be about the latest UI trends, colour schemes, or material finishes. It’s highly dynamic and changes from season to season.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="commerce-fast-but-slower-than-fashion" tabindex="-1">Commerce (Fast, but slower than fashion)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/#commerce-fast-but-slower-than-fashion"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Commerce (Fast, but slower than fashion)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>This layer is about transactional relationships and the commercialisation of design elements. It’s less volatile than fashion but still needs to be responsive to market demands. In design, this might concern the business models, monetisation strategies, or marketing tactics.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="infrastructure-moderate" tabindex="-1">Infrastructure (Moderate)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/#infrastructure-moderate"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Infrastructure (Moderate)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In design, infrastructure refers to the underlying frameworks and standards that support creating products and services. This could be the code libraries in software design, manufacturing processes in industrial design, or service delivery systems in service design. This layer changes more slowly, requiring more significant investment and coordination to evolve.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="governance-slow" tabindex="-1">Governance (Slow)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/#governance-slow"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Governance (Slow)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Here, we look at the rules, regulations, and standards that govern the design process and output. This includes design principles, ethical guidelines, industry standards, and best practices. Changes at this layer are infrequent and often the result of broad consensus or regulatory shifts.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="culture-slower" tabindex="-1">Culture (Slower)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/#culture-slower"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Culture (Slower)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>Cultural values and user behaviours are deeply embedded and change slowly over time. They heavily influence design priorities and user experience. Design at this level must consider long-term societal trends, cultural heritage, and deeply held user beliefs.</p>
<div class="heading-wrapper"><h2 id="nature-slowest" tabindex="-1">Nature (Slowest)<a class="header-anchor" href="https://www.simonwhatley.co.uk/writing/pace-layers-and-how-they-apply-to-design/#nature-slowest"><span aria-hidden="true">#</span><span class="visually-hidden">Permalink to section titled Nature (Slowest)</span></a></h2></div>
<p>In the design context, we can think of this as the physical and psychological realities of human interaction with products and services. This layer changes only over centuries or millennia; for example, our physiological response to colour or our innate need for social interaction. Good design at this layer is empathetic to human nature and creates products that are ergonomic, intuitive, and sustainable.</p>
<p>Understanding and applying pace layers to design can lead to more resilient and adaptive products and services. Designers can innovate quickly at the fashion/art layer while relying on the stability and longevity of the slower layers to ensure their designs stand the test of time and contribute positively to the human experience.</p>